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Dr Samuel Davidson; while Scotland has contributed Dr Andrew Thomson, the elder M'Crie, Dr Jamieson, Dr Chalmers, Dr Wardlaw, Dr John Brown, and Dr Welsh.

11. The philosophical literature of the age has been the most deeply influenced by the general study of the works of the German writers. The moral and metaphysical speculations of our time are in consequence distinguished by greater profundity; while the vague and dreamy transcendentalism so characteristic of Germany is in general very considerably modified by the practical and clear-headed good sense in which our own country so much excels. Dugald Stewart, the earliest philosophical name of the period, was ignorant of the German language, and thus escaped the influence of German philosophy. He adhered to the opinions of Dr Reid, with few and slight alterations, and was very cautious in his speculations, but his learning, his sound sense, and his eloquence, have secured for him a high reputation among the philosophers of the century. His chief works are "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind," "Outlines of Moral Philosophy," and a "Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical and Metaphysical Science." Dr Thomas Brown, who succeeded Stewart as Professor of Moral Philosophy in Edinburgh, departed from the system of Reid, and by his great acuteness was admirably qualified to simplify the somewhat complicated and unphilosophical doctrines of Reid and Stewart. He was, however, rash in drawing his conclusions; his knowledge of the systems of previous philosophers was superficial and by no means accurate; and his " Lectures," which long enjoyed extensive popularity, have been for some time declining in public estimation. The "Dissertation" of Sir James Mackintosh on the " History of Ethical Philosophy," is, both in point of learning and of acuteness, a valuable contribution to an important subject. The "Logic" of Archbishop Whately has been of essential service in reviving the study of the Aristotelian system, and clearing it from many of those charges which, though heaped upon it in ignorance, had brought it into very general disrepute. A more profound work of the same kind is the " System of Logic" of John Stuart Mill, one of the most distinguished thinkers of the age. An attempt has also. been made by Augustus De Morgan, a well-known mathematician, to develop the science of Logic in a more complete form than was done by the Stagyrite himself, but some doubts have been entertained both as to the accuracy and the originality of his views. Beyond all question the ablest writer on this class of subjects during the present period, if indeed it be not unjust to him to make any such limitation, is Sir William Hamilton. To an amount of learning which would alone have sufficed to immortalize his name, he added very great acuteness, and strong powers of philosophical generalisation. His "Lectures on Logic" have been long admitted to be the most valuable contribution to the science since the days of its great originator; and his Lectures on Metaphysics" and "Discussions," are known and appreciated wherever the speculative sciences are held in honour. The "Constitution of Man," by George Combe, contains a system of philosophy from a phrenological point of view; and the utilitarian system of morals has been well expounded by Bentham. Among other writers worthy of note may be mentioned

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the late Dr Abercromby, Rev. Mr Mansell, Mr Morell, and Professor Ferrier.

12. The miscellaneous literature of the period is too voluminous for much special notice; a few remarks only can be made upon the most important classes of works which compose it. A prominent place is due to the numerous works of travel and adventure which form so marked and important a portion of our present literature. Under this head may be ranked the works of the early explorers of Africa, Park, Denham, and Lander; and those of the intrepid voyagers to the Northern Ocean, such as Ross, Parry, Franklin, and Richardson. Of travellers on the Continent, few are more entertaining, or more worthy of perusal, than Dr Edward Clarke, whose works long enjoyed a welldeserved popularity. Those of Eustace and Forsyth are also able works. Of the early travellers in Palestine and the East, Burckhardt, Silk Buckingham, Ker Porter, and Rae Wilson, are still much admired. The 66 Voyages" of Basil Hall, and Williams's "Tour in Greece." were also long favourite books with the public. Of more recent travellers, Warburton, Dr M'Culloch, Kingslake (author of "Eothen"), Sir Francis and Sir George Head, Barrow, Bishop Heber, Robinson (an American, whose works have been published, however, in England), Stanley, and numerous others, are well known. The most recent, and in some respects the most important works of this class, are those of Layard and Livingstone: the "Discoveries at Nineveh made by the former, are among the most remarkable which it has fallen to the lot of a single individual to make; and the latter has contributed much to our knowledge of a country hitherto almost unexplored by Europeans. Works of science, written in a popular form, constitute a large portion of the literature of the present day. In this department Sir John Herschell and Sir David Brewster are among the best-known contributors; the former being the author of " Discourses on Natural Philosophy;" and the latter, besides some minor works, of articles in the leading Reviews, which must by this time be well-nigh innumerable. Dr Whewell, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, is known by his "History" and "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," and is one of the most learned and able men of the day. In Geology, works of great value have been produced by the late Dr Buckland, Sir Roderick Murchison, Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Henry Delabeche, Dr Mantell, Professor Philip, Hugh Miller, and others; in Astronomy, Herschell and Professor Nichol are the most popular authors; in Natural History and Natural Philosophy, the works of Professor Owen, Dr Johnstone, Mr Lewis, Professor Forbes, Dr Lardner, Rymer Jones, and others, are well known to students of science. The science of Political Economy has also been assiduously cultivated, and many valuable additions have been made to its literature, especially by Ricardo in his "Essay on Rent," and "Principles of Political Economy;" Malthus, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, Nassau Senior, Whately, J. R. M'Culloch, Sadler, are also well-known writers on the subject. Criticism has also flourished in the present century, and many valuable works have appeared in elucidation of the literature, manners, and pursuits of our ancestors. The works of the elder Disraeli, of Sir Egerton Brydges, Mr Fosbrooke, Chalmers, Hone, Wright, Collier, Dyce, and others, are valuable repositories of information.

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Essayists now find in the numerous Magazines and Reviews the best field for their writings, and few essays are published independently; those of Hazlitt, Lamb, and Foster, however, belong to this period. Ruskin has acquired a wide reputation as an able writer on the principles of Art. Carlyle may perhaps be best described as a satirist, his works being rather directed against the follies and fallacies which pervade human conduct, than towards the construction of any definite moral or social system of his own. Written in a very peculiar style, which in his own hands lends additional emphasis to his views, and probing to the bottom important questions, which are often indefinitely solved or taken for granted, his works have been of essential service to his countrymen, and have exercised a wide influence over the progress of thought in Britain. The various works of Isaac Taylor have enjoyed an extensive popularity, to which their depth of thought and eloquence of expression well entitle them. It would be improper to conclude without referring to the Encyclopædias, Dictionaries, and other serials which exist in such abundance, and employ so many literary labourers at present. Of these there may be mentioned as the most important, the "Encyclopædia Britannica," the "Penny Cyclopædia," and the "Cyclopædia Metropolitana; " the various Dictionaries edited by Dr Smith; and the numerous Libraries and Miscellanies which have at various periods been issued by Constable, Murray, Longman, Bohn, and other enterprising publishers.

SELECTIONS.

I. WILLIAM PALEY.

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WILLIAM PALEY was born at Peterborough in 1743, and after the usual preliminary education, which he received from his father at Giggleswick, in Yorkshire, he removed to Cambridge. At the university he greatly distinguished himself, and was fortunate enough to form a connection with a son of the Bishop of Carlisle, which procured him ample preferment when he entered the Church. In 1785 Paley issued his "Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy," which, from its clearness and good sense, obtained a very high degree of public esteem. Five years after, he published his Horæ Paulinæ," the most original of his works, in which, by pointing out numerous incidental and undesigned coincidences between the Epistles of Paul and the Acts of the Apostles, he brings out, in the clearest light, the genuineness of both, and thus introduces a new and very powerful argument for the truth of the Christian Revelation. In 1794 appeared his" View of the Evidences of Christianity," one of the most popular of his works, and for which he was rewarded with valuable Church preferment, especially with the lucrative living of Bishop-Wearmouth; and in 1800 he issued his "Natural Theology," which he composed during the quiet intervals of a painful disease, and for which he had been obliged to study anatomy. His malady still increased in violence, and cut him off in 1805. As a writer, Paley is distinguished (as Dr Chalmers has well remarked) by his having "no nonsense" about him he never mystifies his readers with metaphysical jargon; never indulges in professional declamation, but goes straight to his point, which he establishes with irresistible cogency of argument. Hence, though some minor matters have been sometimes considered objectionable, his works are pre-eminently fitted for ordinary readers, and for the purposes of instruction.

1. EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF CHRISTIANITY FROM THE MANNER OF OUR SAVIOUR'S TEACHING." EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY.")

Next to what our Saviour taught, may be considered the manner of His teaching, which was extremely peculiar, yet, I think, precisely adapted to the peculiarity of His character and situation. His lessons did not consist of disquisitions; of anything like moral essays,

EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF CHRISTIANITY,

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or like sermons, or like set treatises upon the several points which He mentioned. When He delivered a precept, it was seldom that He added any proof or argument; still more seldom that He accompanied it with, what all precepts required, limitations and distinctions. His instructions were conceived in short, emphatic, sententious rules, in occasional reflections, or in round maxims. I do not think that this was a natural, or would have been a proper method, for a philosopher or moralist; or that it is a method which can be successfully imitated by us. But I contend that it was suitable to the character which Christ assumed, and to the situation in which, as a teacher, He was placed. He produced Himself as a messenger from God. He put the truth of what He taught upon authority. the choice, therefore, of His mode of teaching, the purpose by Him to be consulted was impression; because conviction, which forms the principal end of our discourses, was to arise in the minds of His followers from a different source, from their respect to His person and authority. Now, for the purpose of impression singly and exclusively (I repeat again, that we are not here to consider the convincing of the understanding), I know nothing which would have so great force as strong, ponderous maxims, frequently urged, and frequently brought back to the thoughts of the hearers. I know nothing that could, in this view, be said better, than "do unto others as ye would that others should do unto you;" "the first and great commandment is, thou shalt love the Lord thy God; and the second is like unto it, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." It must also be remembered, that our Lord's ministry, upon the supposition either of one year or three, compared with His work, was of short duration; that, within this time, He had many places to visit, various audiences to address; that His person was generally besieged by crowds of followers; that He was sometimes driven away from the place where He was teaching by persecution, at other times thought fit to withdraw Himself from the commotions of the populace. Under these circumstances, nothing appears to have been so practicable, or likely to be so efficacious, as leaving, wherever He came, concise lessons of duty. These circumstances, at least, show the necessity He was under of comprising what He delivered within a small compass. In particular, His Sermon upon the Mount ought always to be considered with a view to these observations. The question is not whether a fuller, a more accurate, a more systematic, or a more argumentative discourse upon morals might not have been pronounced, but whether more could have been said in the same room better adapted to the exigencies of the hearers, or better calculated for the purposes of impression? Seen in this light, it has always appeared to me to be admirable. Dr Lardner thought that this discourse was made up of what Christ had said at different times, and on different occasions, several of which occasions are noticed in St Luke's narrative. I can perceive no reason for this opinion. I believe that our Lord delivered this discourse at one time and place, in the manner related by St Mat

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