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R. H. M. B.

R. H. R.

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the Paulet: Family.
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

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OLDFIELD THOMAS, F.R.S., F.Z.S.

Senior Assistant, Natural History Department of the British Museum. Author of Pangolin (in part).
Catalogue of Marsupialia in the British Museum.

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Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. Ostade (in part).
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.

ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.

Ophir;

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora-Palestine (in part).

tion Fund.

RONALD BRUNLEES MCKERROW, M.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Works of Thomas Nashe; &c.

SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD ClaverHouse.

RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: GARNETT, Richard.

ROBERT HOLFORD MACDOWALL BOSANQUET, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S.
Fellow of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Musical Temperament; &c.
ROBERT HALLOWELL RICHARDS, LL.D.

Professor of Mining and Metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.
President American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1886. Author of Ore-dressing; &c.
R. J. GREWING, Captain, Reserve of Officers.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's
Gazette, London.

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{oken.

President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, Order; Orientation.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

R. S. C.

R. Tr.

S. A. C.

S. Fr.

S. G. O.

S. N.

S. P

T. As.

T. A. I.

T. Ba.

ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics
at Worcester College, Oxford.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on
Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine: &c.

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T. E. M.

T. F. C.

Т. Н.

THOMAS HODGKIN, LITT. D., LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: HODGKIN, T.

T. H. H.*

SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet.

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D., LL.D.

See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

THEODOR NÖLDEKE.

Paeligni;
Osca Lingua.

Paris: Geography and
Statistics.

Omri;

Palestine: Old Testament
History

Ordnance: Naval Guns and
Gunnery.

{Ovid.

{Orbit;

Parallax.

Paget, Sir James.

Olbia: Sardinia;
Orbetello; Oristano;
Ortona a Mare; Orvieto;
Ostia; Otranto; Paestum;
Palermo (in part);
Pantelleria; Patavium;
Pavia.

Patents (in part);
Payment;

Payment of Members.

Pacific Blockade.

Parliament (in part).

Orange: France;

Paul III., IV., V. (Popes).
Odoacer.

Oman; Oxus;
Pamirs.

T. K. C.

Paradise.

Th. N.

Pahlavi.

See the biographical article: Nöldeke, Theodor.

T. L. H.

SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc.

T. 0.

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
THOMAS OKEY.

Pappus of Alexandria.

Osier.

T. W. R. D.

Examiner in Basket Work for the City and Guilds of London Institute.
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D

V. M.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the
Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.
VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON.

Pali.

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Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Ophicleide (in part).
Legion of Honour.

Director of National Gallery of Ireland. Author of Art in the British Isles; &c.
Joint-editor of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters; &c.

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphiné; The Range
of the Todi: Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor to The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.

WILLIAM ALFRED HINDS.

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President of the Oneida Community, Ltd.; Author of American Communities; &c. {Oneida Community.

W. A. P.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Papacy: 1900-1910.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Paris: History (in part).
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.

WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.

Officers: United States.

Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of Palissy.
English Stoneware and Earthenware; &c.

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W. B.

W. E. A.*

REV. WILLIAM E. ADDIS, M.A.

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Author of A General History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Palestrina (in part).
Present Period; and other works on the history of music.

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ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XX

as rapidly as it had come to life; it hardly survived the 16th century, and neither the examples of J. B. Rousseau nor of Saint-Amant nor of Malherbe possessed much poetic life. Early in the 19th century the form was resumed, and we have the Odes composed between 1817 and 1824 by Victor Hugo, the philosophical and religious odes of Lamartine, those of Victor de Laprade (collected in 1844), and the brilliant Odes funambulesques of Théodore de Banville (1857).

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The earliest odes in the English language, using the word in its strict form, were the magnificent Epithalamium and Prothalamium of Spenser. Ben Jonson introduced a kind of elaborate lyric, in stanzas of rhymed irregular verse, to which he gave the name of ode; and some of his disciples, in particular Randolph, Cartwright and Herrick, followed him. The great Hymn on the Morning of Christ's Nativity," begun by Milton in 1629, may be considered an ode, and his lyrics "On Time " and "At a Solemn Music" may claim to belong to the same category. But it was Cowley who introduced into English poetry the ode consciously built up, on a solemn theme and as definitely as possible on the ancient Greek pattern. Being in exile in France about 1645, and at a place where the only book was the text of Pindar, Cowley set himself to study and to

ODE (Gr. on, from deidav, to sing), a form of stately and | the French language. The ode, however, died in France almost elaborate lyrical verse. As its name shows, the original signification of an ode was a chant, a poem arranged to be sung to an instrumental accompaniment. There were two great divisions of the Greek melos or song; the one the personal utterance of the poet, the other, as Professor G. G. Murray says, "the choric song of his band of trained dancers." Each of these culminated in what have been called odes, but the former, in the hands of Alcaeus, Anacreon and Sappho, came closer to what modern criticism knows as lyric, pure and simple. On the other hand, the choir-song, in which the poet spoke for himself, but always supported, or interpreted, by a chorus, led up to what is now known as ode proper. It was Alcman, as is supposed, who first gave to his poems a strophic arrangement, and the strophe has come to be essential to an ode. Stesichorus, Ibycus and Simonides of Ceos led the way to the two great masters of ode among the ancients, Pindar and Bacchylides. The form and verse-arrangement of Pindar's great lyrics have regulated the type of the heroic ode. It is now perceived that they are consciously composed in very elaborate measures, and that each is the result of a separate act of creative ingenuity, but each preserving an absolute consistency of form. So far from being, as critics down to Cowley and Boileau, and indeed to the time of August Böckh, supposed, utterly licentious in their irregu-imitate the Epinikia. He conceived, he says, that this was larity, they are more like the canzos and sirventes of the medieval troubadours than any modern verse. The Latins themselves seem to have lost the secret of these complicated harmonies, and they made no serious attempt to imitate the odes of Pindar and Bacchylides. It is probable that the Greek odes gradually lost their musical character; they were accompanied on the flute, and then declaimed without any music at all. The ode, as it was practised by the Romans, returned to the personally lyrical form of the Lesbian lyrists. This was exemplified, in the most exquisite way, by Horace and Catullus; the former imitated, and even translated, Alcaeus and Anacreon, the latter was directly inspired by Sappho.

The earliest modern writer to perceive the value of the antique ode was Ronsard, who attempted with as much energy as he could exercise to recover the fire and volume of Pindar; his principal experiments date from 1550 to 1552. The poets of the Pleiad recognized in the ode one of the forms of verse with which French prosody should be enriched, but they went too far, and in their use of Greek words crudely introduced, and in their quantitative experiments, they offended the genius of

"the noblest and the highest kind of writing in verse," but he was no more perspicacious than others in observing what the rules were which Pindar had followed. He supposed the Greek poet to be carried away on a storm of heroic emotion, in which all the discipline of prosody was disregarded. In 1656 Cowley published his Pindaric odes, in which he had not even regarded the elements of the Greek structure, with strophe, antistrophe and epode. His idea of an ode, which he impressed with such success upon the British nation that it has never been entirely removed, was of a lofty and tempestuous piece of indefinite poetry, conducted" without sail or oar " in whatever direction the enthusiasm of the poet chose to take it. These shapeless pieces became very popular after the Restoration, and enjoyed the sanction of Dryden in three or four irregular odes which are the best of their kind in the English language. Prior, in a humorous ode on the taking of Namur (1695), imitated the French type of this poem, as cultivated by Boileau. In 1705 Congreve published a Discourse on the Pindarique Ode, in which many of the critical errors of Cowley were corrected; and Congreve wrote odes, in strophe, antistrophe and epode,

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