same century the organistrum, named after Hucbald's organum, and specially constructed to reproduce it. of Saxony and the kings of France with their renowned institutions La Chapelle-Musique du Roi (c. 1440), la Musique de la Chambre, la Musique de la Grande Ecurie du Roi. At the time of the revival of the drama with music, afterwards modified and known as opera, at the end of the 16th century, there was as yet no orchestra in our sense of the word, but merely an abundance of instruments used in concert for special effects, without balance or grouping; small positive organs, regals, harpsichords, lutes, theorboes, archlutes and chittarone (bass and contrabass lutes), guitars, viols, lyras da braccio and da gamba, psalteries, citterns, harps, flutes, recorders, cornets, trumpets and trombones, drums and cymbals. Monteverde was the first to see that a preponderance of strings is necessary to ensure a proper balance of tone. With the perfected models of the Cremona violins at his disposal, a quartett of strings was established, and all other stringed instruments not played with the bow were ejected from the orchestra with the exception of the harp. Under the influence of Monteverde and his successors, Cavalli and Cesti, the orchestra won for itself a separate existence with music and laws of its own. As instruments were improved, new ones introduced, and old ones abandoned, instrumentation became a new and favourite study in Italy and in Germany. Musicians began to find out the capabilities of various families of instruments and their individual value. Shortly after the introduction of polyphony, instruments such as dútes-à-bec, or flaiols, cornets, cromornes, shawms, hunting horns, bagpipes, as well as lutes and bowed instruments began to be made in sizes approximately corresponding in pitch with the voice parts. It is probably to the same yearning of instrumentalists after a polyphonic ensemble, possible until the 14th century only on organs, hurdy-gurdies and bagpipes, that we owe the clavichord and clavicembalo, embodying the application of keys, respectively, to the dulcimer and the psaltery. There are two reasons which account for the development of the brass wind proceeding more slowly. (1) These instruments, trumpets or busines, tubas and horns, were for many centuries mainly used in medieval Europe as military or hunting signal instruments, and as such the utmost required of them was a fanfare. Specimens of 14th-century tablature and 16th-century notation for the horn, for instance, show that for that instrument rhythm alone was taken into account. (2) Whereas in most of the instruments named above the notes of the diatonic scale were either fixed or easily obtained, the acoustic principles of tubes without lateral holes and blown by means of a cup mouthpiece do not allow of a diatonic scale, except for the fourth octave from the fundamental, and that enly in trumpets and horns, the notes of the common chord with the addition of the flattened seventh being the utmost that can The proper understanding of the compass and capabilities of be produced without the help of valves, keys or slides. These wind instruments, and more especially of the brass wind, was of instruments were, therefore, the last to be added to the orchestra, later date (18th century). At first the scores contained but few although they were extensively used for special military, civil indications for instruments other than strings; the others played and religious functions and were the most highly favoured of all. as much as they could according to the compass of their instruThe earliest improvement in the status of the roving instruments at the direction of the leader. The possibility of using mentalists came with the rise of minstrelsy. The courts of the instruments for solos, by encouraging virtuosi to acquire great counts of Toulouse, Provence and Barcelona were the first to skill, raised the standard of excellence of the whole orchestra. foster the art of improvising or composing songs known as trobar At first the orchestra was an aristocratic luxury, performing (or trouver in the north of France), and Count Guillaume of privately at the courts of the princes and nobles of Italy; but Poitiers (1087-1127) is said to have been the first troubadour. in the 17th century performances were given in theatres, and The noble troubadour seldom sang the songs he composed him- Germany eagerly followed. Dresden, Munich and Hamburg self, this duty devolving upon his professional minstrel skilled in successively built opera houses, while in England opera flourished singing and in playing upon divers instruments who interpreted under Purcell, and in France under Lully, who with the collaboraand disseminated his master's verses. In this respect the trouba- tion of Molière also greatly raised the status of the entertainments dear differed from his German contemporary the Minnesinger, known as ballets, interspersed with instrumental and vocal music. who frequently sang himself. The professional musicians were included under the general term of jongleurs or jugleors, gleemen er minstrels, whose function was to entertain and amuse, but there were among them many subtle distinctions and ranks, such as chanteors and estrumanteors. Love was the prevailing theme in the south, while in the north war and heroic deeds inspired the bards. To the former was due the rapid development of bowed instruments, which by reason of their singing quality were more suitable for accompanying passionate love songs, while instruments of which the strings were plucked accorded better with the declamatory and dramatic style of the north. The first assertive move towards independence was made by the wandering musicians in the 13th century, when some of these, tired of a roving life, settled down in cities, forming gilds or brotherhoods for the protection of their mutual interests and privileges. In time they came to be recognized by the burgomasters and municipalities, by whom they were engaged to provile music at all civic and private festivities, wandering musicians being prohibited from playing within the precincts of the cities. The oldest of these gilds was the Brotherhood of Nicolai founded in Vienna in 1288. In the next century these pioneers chose as patron of their brotherhood Peter von Eberstorff, from 1354 to 1376 known as Vogt der Musikanten, who obtained for the rembers an imperial charter. This example was gradually followed in other parts of Germany and elsewhere in Europe. In England, John of Gaunt was in 1381 chosen King of the Minstrels. In France there was the Confrérie of St Julien des Menestriers, incorporated in 1321. Exalted patrons of instrumental music multiplied in the 15th century, to instance only the dukes of Burgundy, the emperors of the House of Austria, the dukes of Lorraine, of Este, Ferrara and Tuscany, the electors The revival of the drama seems to have exhausted the enthusiasm of Italy for instrumental music, and the field of action was shifted to Germany, where the perfecting of the orchestra was continued. Most German princes had at the beginning of the 18th century good private orchestras or Kapelle, and they always endeavoured to secure the services of the best available instrumentalists. Kaiser, Telemann, Graun, Mattheson and Handel contributed greatly to the development of German opera and of the orchestra in Hamburg during the first quarter of the century. Bach, Gluck and Mozart, the reformers of opera; Haydn, the father of the modern orchestra and the first to treat it independently as a power opposed to the solo and chorus, by scoring for the instruments in well-defined groups; Beethoven, who individualized the instruments, writing solo passages for them; Weber, who brought the horn and clarinet into prominence; Schubert, who inaugurated the conversations between members of the wood wind-all left their mark on the orchestra, leading the way up to Wagner and Strauss. A sketch of the rise of the modern orchestra would not be complete without reference to the invention of the piston or valve by Stölzel and Blümel, both Silesians, in 1815. A satisfactory bass for the wind, and more especially for the brass, had long been a desideratum. The effect of this invention was felt at once: instrument-makers in all countries vied with each other in making use of the contrivance and in bringing it to perfection; and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of valved instruments, variously known as tubas, or euphoniums and bombardons, having a chromatic scale and a full sonorous tone of great beauty and immense volume, forming a magnificent bass. (K. S.) six stamens whose anthers contain pulverulent pollen-grains. These stamens encircle a style which is the upward continuation of the ovary, and which shows at its free end traces of the three originally separate but now blended carpels of which the ovary consists. An orchid flower has an inferior ovary like that just ORCHESTRION, a name applied to three different kinds of | from its sides, or apparently from the top of the ovary, are instruments. (1) A chamber organ, designed by Abt Vogler at the end of the 18th century, which in a space of 9 cub. ft. contained no less than 900 pipes, 3 manuals of 63 keys each and 39 pedals (see HARMONIUM). (2) A pianoforte with organ pipes attached, invented by Thomas Anton Kunz of Prague in 1791. This orchestrion comprised two manuals of 65 keys and 25 pedals, all of which could be used either independently or coupled. There were 21 stops, 230 strings and 360 pipes which produced 105 different combinations. The bellows were worked either by hand or by machinery. (3) A mechanical instrument, automatically played by means of revolving cylinders, invented in 1851 by F. T. Kaufmann of Dresden. It comprises a complete wind orchestra, with the addition of kettle-drums, side-drums, cymbals and triangle. (K. S.) ORCHHA, or URCHHA (also called Tehri or Tikamgarh), a native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand agency. Orchha is the oldest and highest in rank of all the Bundela principalities, and was the only one not held in subjection by the peshwa. Area, 2080 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 321,634; estimated revenue, £47,000; no tribute. The maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh, G.S.C.I. (born in 1854, succeeded in 1874), took a great personal interest in the development of his state, and himself designed most of the engineering and irrigation works that have been executed here within recent years. He bears the hereditary title of " First of the Princes of Bundelkhand." The state exports grain, ghi, and cotton cloth, but trade suffers from imperfect communications. The town of Orchha, the former capital, is on the river Betwa, not far from Jhansi. It possesses an imposing fort, dating mainly from the early 17th century. This contains a number of palaces and other buildings connected one with another. The most noteworthy are the Rajmandir, a massive square erection of which the exterior is almost absolutely plain; and the Jahangirmahal, of the same form but far more ornate, a singularly beautiful specimen of Hindu domestic architecture. Elsewhere about the town are fine. temples and tombs, among which may be noticed the Chaturbhuj temple on its vast platform of stone. The town of Tehri or Tikamgarh, where the chief now resides, is about 40 m. S. of Orchha; pop. (1901) 14,050. It contains the fort of Tikamgarh, by which name the town is generally called, to distinguish it from Tehri in the Himalayas. ORCHIDS. The word Orchis is used in a special sense to denote a particular genus of the Orchid family (Orchidaceae); very frequently, also, it is employed in a more general way to indicate any member of that large and very interesting group. It will be convenient here to use the word Orchis as applying to that particular genus which gives its name to the order or family, and to employ the term "orchid" in the less precise sense. The flowers of all orchids, though extremely diverse within certain limits, and although superficially very different from those of other monocotyledons, are all formed upon one common plan, which is only a modification of that observable in such flowers as those of the narcissus or snowdrop (Galanthus). The conformation of those flowers consists essentially in the presence of a six-parted perianth, the three outer segments of which correspond to a calyx, the three inner ones to a corolla. These segments spring apparently from the top of the ovary-the real explanation, however, being that the end of the flower-staik or "thalamus," as it grows, becomes dilated into a sort of cup or tube enclosing and indeed closely adhering to the ovary, so that the latter organ appears to be beneath the perianth instead of above it as in a lily, an appearance which has given origin to the term "inferior ovary." Within the perianth, and springing :9 FIG. 1. B A. Floral diagram of typical orchid flower; 7, labellum; a, anther; s, rudiments of barren stamens (staminodes). B. Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary (Fritillaria). e, The fertile stamen, with its two pollen-masses in 0, The twisted ovary. The one-celled ovary cut C, The anther, containing pollen masses. described, but with the ovules on the walls of the cavity (not in its caudicle" ending in a flattish gland or "viscid disk" like a boy's sucker. In Cypripedium all three stigmas are functional, but in the great majority of orchids only the lateral pair form receptive surfaces (st, fig. 3), the third being sterile and forming the rostellum which plays an important part in the process of pollination, often forming a peculiar pouch-like process (fig. 4, r) in which the viscid disk of the pollen-masses is FIG. 4-Diagram illusconcealed till released in the manner trating arrangement of presently to be mentioned. It would parts in flower of Orchis. appear, then, that the orchid flower, Sepals. p. Petals. differs from the more general mono- a, Anther. cotyledonous type in the irregularity of st, Two united stigmas. (barren the perianth, in the suppression of five 7, Rostellum stigma). out of six stamens, and in the union of the one stamen and the stigmas. In addition to these modifications, which are common to nearly all orchids, there are others generally but not so universally met with; among them is the displacement of the flower arising from the twisting of the inferior ovary, in consequence of which the flower is so completely turned round that the "lip," which originates in that part of the flower, conventionally called the posterior or superior part, or that nearest to the supporting stem, becomes in course of growth turned to the anterior or lower part of the flower nearest to the bract, from whose axil it arises. Other common modifications arise from the union of certain parts of the perianth to each other, and from the varied and often very remarkable outgrowths from the lip. These modifications are associated with the structure and habits of insects and their visits to the flowers. Cross fertilization, or the impregnation of any given flower by pollen from another flower of the same species on the same or on another plant, has been proved to be of great advantage to the plant by securing a more FIG. 5-Pollen- numerous or a more robust offspring, or one masses of an Orchid, better able to adapt itself to the varying with their caudicles conditions under which it has to live. This C and common cross fertilization is often effected by the gland g. agency of insects. They are attracted to the flower by its colour or its perfume; they seek, collect or feed on its honey, and while so doing they remove the pollen from the anther and convey it to another flower, there to germinate on the stigma when its tubes travel down the style to the ovary where their contents ultimately fuse with the "oosphere" or immature egg, which becomes in consequence fertilized, and forms a seed which afterwards develops into a new plant (see article ANGIOSPERMS). To facilitate the operations of such insects, by compelling them to move in certain lines so as to secure the due removal of the pollen and its subsequent deposit on the right place, the form of the flower and the conformation of its several parts are modified in ways as varied as they are wonderful. Other insects visit the flower with more questionable result. For them the pollen is an attraction as food, or some other part of the flower offers an inducement to them for a like object. Such visitors are clearly prejudicial to the flower, and so we meet with arrangements which are calculated to repel the intruders, or at least to force them to enter the flower in such a way as not to effect mischief. See Darwin's Fertilization of Orchids and similar works. In the common orchids of British meadows, Orchis Morio, mascula (Shakespeare's long purples), &c., the general structure of the flower is as we have described it (figs. 2, 3). In addition there is in this particular genus, as indeed in many others, a long tubular spur or horn projecting downwards from the back of the lip, whose office it is to secrete and store a honeyed juice; the forepart of the lip forms an expanded plate, usually larger and more brightly coloured than the other parts of the flower, and with hairs or ridges and spots of various kinds according to the species. The remaining parts of the perianth are very much smaller, and commonly are so arranged as to form a hood overarching the "column." This column stands up from the base of the flower, almost at right angles to the lip, and it bears at the top an anther, in the two hollow lobes of which are concealed the two pollen-masses, each with its caudicle terminating below in a roundish gland, concealed at first in the pouch-like rostellum at the front of the column. Below the anther the surface of the column in front is hollowed out into a greenish depression covered with viscid fluid—this is the two united stigmas. The other parts of the flower need not detain us. Such being in general terms the mechanism of the flower of a common orchis, let us now see how it acts. A bee, we will assume, attracted by the colour and perfume of the flower, alights on that part of it which is the first to attract its attention-the lip. There, guided by the hairs or ridges before-mentioned, it is led to the orifice of the spur with its store of honeyed juice. The position of this orifice, as we have seen, is at the base of the lip and of the column, so that the insect, if of sufficient size, while bending its head to insert the proboscis into the spur, almost of necessity displaces the pollen-masses. Liberated from the anthers, these adhere to the head or back of the insect by means of the sticky gland at the bottom of the caudicle (fig. 4). Having attained its object the insect withdraws, taking the pollen-masses, and visits another flower. And now occurs another device or adaptation no less marvellous than those of which mention has been made. The two anther-cases in an orchis are erect and nearly parallel the one to the other; the pollen-masses within them are of course in like case, as may be thus represented II, but immediately the pollen-masses are removed movements take place at the base of the caudicle so as to effect the bending of this stalk and the placing the pollen-mass in a more or less horizontal position, thus, or, as in the case of O. pyramidalis, the two pollen-masses originally placed parallel II diverge from the base like the letter V. The movements of the pollen-masses may readily be seen with the naked eye by thrusting the point of a needle into the base of the anther, when the disks adhere to the needle as they would do to the antenna of an insect, and may be withdrawn. Sometimes the lip is mobile and even sensitive to impressions, as are also certain processes of the column. In such cases the contact of an insect or other body with those processes is sufficient to liberate the pollen often with elastic force, even when the anther itself is not touched. In other orchids movements take place in different ways and in other directions. The object of these movements will be appreciated when it is remembered that, if the pollen-masses retained the original direction they had in the anther in which they were formed, they would, when transported by the insect to another flower, merely come in contact with the anther of that flower, where of course they would be of no use; but, owing to the divergences and flexions above alluded to, the pollen-masses come to be so placed that, when transplanted to another flower of the same species, they come in contact with the stigma and so effect the fertilization of that flower. These illustrations are comparatively simple; it would have been easy to select others of a more complicated nature, but all evidently connected with the visits of insects and the cross fertilization of the flower. In some cases, as in Catasetum, male flowers are produced so different from the female that before the different flowers had been found on the same pike, and before the facts of the case were fully known, they were taken to be representatives of distinct genera. The fruit is a capsule splitting generally by three longitudinal slits forming valves which remain united above and below. The seeds are minute and innumerable; they contain a small rudimentary embryo surrounded by a thin loose membraneous coat, and are scattered by means of hygroscopic hairs on the inside of the valves which by their movements jerk out the seeds. The floral structure is so curious that perhaps less attention has been paid to the vegetative organs than the peculiarities of their organisation demand. We can only allude to some of these points. The orchids of British fields are all of terrestrial habit, and their roots are mostly tuberous (fig. 6), the tubers being partly radical partly budlike in their character. There is often a marked alternation in the production of vegetative and flowering shoots respectively; and, sometimes, from various circumstances, the flowering shoots are not produced for several years in succession. This fact will account for the profusion with which some orchids, like the common bee orchis for instance, are found in some seasons and their scarcity in others. Tropical orchids are mostly epiphytal-that is, they grow upon trees without deriving nourishment from them. They are frequently provided FIG. 6. Tuberwith "pseudo-bulbs, " large solid swellings cular roots of Orchis mascula, a terrestrial of the stem, in the tissues of which water Orchid. and nutritive materials are stored. They derive this moisture from the air by means of aerial roots, developed from the stem and bearing an outer spongy structure, or velamen, consisting of empty cells kept open by spiral thickenings in the wall; this sponge-like tissue absorbs dew and rain and condenses the moisture of the air and passes it on to the internal tissues. The number of species of orchids is greater than that of any other monocotyledonous order-not even excepting grassesamounting to 6000, contained in 400 genera. This large number is partly accounted for by the diligent search in all countries that has been made for these plants for purposes of cultivationthey being held at present in the greatest esteem by plantlovers, and prices being paid for new or rare varieties which recall the days of the tulipomania. The economic uses of orchids are not remarkable. When we have mentioned vanilla (q.v.), which consists of the fleshy pods of an orchid, we have mentioned about the only economic product that now comes into market. Salep (q.v.), still used in the Levant, consists of the dried tubers of a terrestrial orchid, and contains a relatively large amount of nutritious matter. The cultivation of orchids is treated under HORTICULTURE. The order is divided into two main groups based on the number of the stamens and stigmas. The first Diandreae, has two or rarely three fertile stamens and three functional stigmas. It contains two small genera of tropical Asia and Africa with almost regular flowers, and the large genus Cypripedium containing about 80 species in the north-temperate zone and tropical Asia and America. In Cypripedium two stamens are present, one on each side of the column instead of one only at the top, as in the group Monandreae, to which belong the remaining genera in which also only two stigmas are fertile. What may be considered the normal number of stamens is, as has been said, six, arranged in two rows. In most orchids the only stamen developed to maturity is the posterior one of the three opposite to the lip (anterior before the twisting of the ovary), the other two, as well as all three inner ones, being entirely absent, or present only in the form of rudiments. In Cypripedium two of the outer stamens are wanting; the third-the one, that is, which corresponds to the single fertile stamen in the Monandreae-forms a large sterile structure or staminode; the two lateral ones of the inner series are present, the third being undeveloped. This arrangement may be understood by reference to the following diagram, representing the relative position of the stamens in orchids generally and in Cypripedium. The letter L indicates the position of the labellum; the large figures indicate the developed stamens; the italic figures show the position of the suppressed stamens. The Monandreae have been subdivided into twenty-eight tribes, the characters of which are based on the structure of the anther and pollinia, the nature of the inflorescence, whether terminal or lateral, the vernation of the leaf and the presence or absence of a joint between blade and sheath, and the nature of the stem. The most important are the following: others. Ophrydineae, with about 45 genera, of terrestrial orchids, mainly north temperate, including the British genera Orchis, Aceras, Ophrys, Herminium, Gymnadenia and Habenaria. Also some genera mainly represented in South and tropical Africa, such as Satyrium, Disa and Neottiineae, including 90 genera, also terrestrial, contains thirteen more or less widely distributed tropical or subtropical subtribes, some of which extend into temperate zones; one, Cephalanthereae, which includes our British genera Cephalanthera and Epipactis is chiefly north temperate. The British genera Spiranthes, Listera and Neottia are also included in this tribe, as is also Vanilla, the elongated stem of which climbs by means of tendril-like aerial roots-the long fleshy pod is the vanilla used for flavouring. Coelogyninae, 7 genera, mostly epiphytes, and inhabitants of tropical Asia. A single internode of each shoot is swollen to form a pseudobulb. Liparidinae, 9 genera, terrestrial, two, Malaxis and Corallorhiza, are British. Liparis is a large genus widely distributed in the tropics. Pleurothallidinae, characterized by a thin stem bearing one leaf which separates at a distinct joint; the sepals are usually much larger than the petals and lip. Includes 10 genera, natives of tropical America, one of which, Pleurothallis, contains about 400 species. Masdevallia is common in cultivation and has often Laeliinae, with 22 genera, natives of the warmer parts of America, including three of those best known in cultivation, Epidendrum, Cattleya and Laelia. The jointed leaves are fleshy or leathery; the flowers are generally large with a well-developed lip. brilliant scarlet, crimson or orange flowers. Phajinac, includes 15 genera chiefly tropical Asiatic, somePhajus and Calanthe-spreading northwards into China and Japan. Cystopodiinae, includes 9 genera tropical, but extending into north temperate Asia and South Africa; Eulophia and Lissochilus are important African genera. Catasetinae, with three tropical American genera, two of which, Cataselum and Cycnoches, have di- or tri-morphic flowers. They are cultivated for their strange-looking flowers. flowers. Dendrobiinae, with six genera in the warmer parts of the Old World; the chief is Dendrobium, with 300 species, often with showy Cymbidiinae, with 8 genera in the tropics of the Old World. The leaves are generally long and narrow. Cymbidium is well known in cultivation. Odontoglossum and Oncidium include some of the best-known cultiOncidiinae, with 44 genera in the warmer parts of America. vated orchids. Sarcanthinae, with 42 genera in the tropics. Vanda (Asia) and Angraecum (Africa and Madagascar) are known in cultivation. The flower of Angraecum sesquipedale has a spur 18 in. in length. The order is well represented in Britain by 18 genera, which include several species of Orchis:-Gymnadenia (fragrant orchis). IIabenaria (butterfly and frog orchis), Aceras (man orchis), Herminium (musk orchis), Ophrys (bee, spider and fly orchis), Epipactis (Helleborine). Cephalanthera, Neottia (bird's-nest orchis), one of the few saprophytic genera, which have no green leaves, but derive their nourishment from decaying organic matter in the soil, Listera (Tway blade), Spiranthes (lady's tresses), Malaxis (bog-orchis), Liparis (fen-orchis), Corallorhiza (coral root), also a saprophyte, and Cypripedium (lady's slipper), represented by a single species now very rare in limestone districts in the north of England. ORCHOMENUS (local form on coins and inscriptions, Erchomenos), the name borne by two cities of ancient Greece. 1. A Boeotian city, situated in an angle between the Cephissus and its tributary the Melas, on a long narrow hill which projects south from Mount Acontium. Its position is exceedingly strong, being defended on every side by precipice or marsh or river, and it was admirably situated to be the stronghold of an early kingdom. The acropolis is at the north end of the hill, on a peak which is overhung by Acontium, but at a distance sufficient to be safe from an enemy with the weapons of early warfare posted on the mountain. At the foot of the acropolis are the springs of the Melas. In prehistoric times Orchomenus, as is proved alike by archaeological finds and by an extensive cycle of legends, was one of the most prosperous towns of Greece. It was at once a continental and a maritime power. On the mainland it controlled the greater part of Boeotia and drew its riches from the fertile lowlands of Lake Copais, upon the drainage of which the early kings of Orchomenus bestowed great care. Its maritime connexions have not been as yet determined, but it is clear that its original inhabitants, the Minyae, were a seafaring nation, and in historical times Orchomenus remained a member of the Calaurian League At the end of the second millennium the of naval states. Minyae were more or less supplanted by the incoming stock of Boeotians. Henceforth Orchomenus no longer figures as a great commercial state, and its political supremacy in Boeotia passed now, if not previously, to the people of Thebes. Nevertheless, owing perhaps to its strong military position, it long continued to exercise some sort of overlordship over other towns of northern Boeotia, and maintained an independent attitude within the Boeotian League. In 447 it served as the headquarters of the oligarchic exiles who freed Boeotia from Athenian control. In the 4th century Orchomenus was actuated throughout by an anti-Theban policy, which may have been nothing more than a recrudescence of old-time rivalry, but seems chiefly inspired by aversion to the newly established democracy at Thebes. In the Corinthian War the city supported Lysander and Agesilaus in their attacks upon Thebes, and when war was renewed between the Thebans and Spartans in 379 Orchomenus again sided with the latter. After the battle of Leuctra it was left at the mercy of the Thebans, who first, on Epaminondas's advice, readmitted it into the Boeotian League, but in 368 destroyed the town and exterminated or enslaved its people. By 353 Orchomenus had been rebuilt, probably by the Phocians, who used it as a bulwark against Thebes After the subjection of the Phocians in 346 it was again razed by the Thebans, but was restored by Philip of Macedon as a check upon the latter (338). Orchomenus springs into prominence once again in 85 B.C., when it provided the battle-field on which the Roman general Sulla destroyed an army of Mithradates VI. | is an isomer (CH3: OH: OH=1:3:4), found as its methyl of Pontus. Apart from this event its later history is obscure, ether (creosol) in beech-wood tar. and its decadence is further attested by the neglectful drainage of the plain and the consequent encroachments of Lake Copaïs. Since medieval times the site has been occupied by a village named Skripou. Since 1867 drainage operations have been resumed, and the land thus reclaimed has been divided into small holdings. The most remarkable relic of the early power of Orchomenus is the so-called "treasury" (of "Minyas") which resembles the buildings of similar style at Mycenae (sce MYCENAE), and is almost exactly the same size as the treasury of Atreus. The admiration which Pausanias expresses for it is justified by the beautiful ornamentation, especially of the roof, which has been brought to light by Schliemann's excavations in the inner chamber opening out of the circular vaulted tomb. The monument, undoubtedly the tomb of some ancient ruler, or of a dynasty, lies outside the city walls. Other remains of early date have been found upon this site. The worship of the Charites (see GRACES) was the great cultus of Orchomenus, and the site of the temple is now occupied by a chapel, the Koiunois ris Ilavayias. The Charites were worshipped under the form of rude stones, which had fallen from heaven during the reign of Eteocles; and it was not till the time of Pausanias that statues of the goddesses were placed in the temple. Near this was another temple dedicated to Dionysus, in whose festival, the 'Aypivia, are apparent the traces of human sacrifice in carly times (see AGRIONIA). See Strabo viii. p. 374, ix. pp. 407, 414-416; Pausanias ix. 34-38; Thucydides i. 12, iv. 76; Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 5, iv. 3, vi. 4; Diodorus xv., xvi.; Plutarch, Sulla, chs. 30-31; K. O. Müller, Orchomenos und die Minyer (Breslau, 1844); B. V. Head, Historia sucram (Oxford, 1877), pp. 293-294; Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. ii. pls. xii., xiii. 2. An Arcadian city, situated in a district of the same name, north of Mantineia and west of Stymphalus. The district was mountainous, but embraced two valleys-the northern containing a lake which is drained, like all Arcadian lakes, by a katavethron; the southern lying under the city, separated from Mantineia by a mountain ridge called Anchisia. The old city occupied a strong and lofty situation; in the time of Strabo it was a ruin, but Pausanias mentions that a new town was built below the old. A primitive wooden image of Artemis Cedreatis stood in a large cedar tree outside the city. Orchomenus is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue with the epithet πολύμηλος. In carly history Orchomenus figures as a town of some importance, for its kings until the late 7th century B.C. held some sort of sovereignty over all Arcadia. In the 5th century it was overshadowed by its southern neighbour Mantineia, with whom it is henceforth generally found to be at variance. In 418 B.C. Orchomenus fell for a time into the hands of the Mantincians; in 370 it held aloof from the new Arcadian League which the Mantineians were organizing. About this time it further declined in importance through the loss of some possessions on the east Arcadian watershed to the new Arcadian capital Megalopolis. In the 3rd century Orchomenus belonged in turn to the Actolian League, to the Lacedaemonians, and, since 222, to the Achaean League. Though a fairly extensive settlement still existed on the site in the 2nd century A.D., its history under the Roman rule is quite obscure. Sce Pausanias, viii. chs. 5, 11-13, 27; B. V. Head, Historia amorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 377-378. ORCIN, a dioxytoluene, CH,(CH3)(OH)2 (1:3: 5), found in many lichens, e.g. Rocella tinctoria, Lecanora, and formed by fusing extract of aloes with potash. It may be synthesized from toluene; more interesting is its production when acetone dicarboxylic ester is condensed with the aid of sodium. It crystallizes in colourless prisms with one molecule of water, which redden on exposure. Ferric chloride gives a bluishviolet coloration with the aqueous solution. Unlike resorcin it does not give a fluorescein with phthalic anhydride. Oxidation of the ammoniacal solution gives orcein, CH2N2O7, the chief constituent of the natural dye archil (q.v.). Homo-pyrocatechin ORDEAL (O.Eng. ordal, ordael, judgment), a term corresponding to modern Ger. Urteil, but bearing the special sense of the medieval Lat. Dei judicium, a miraculous decision as to the truth of an accusation or claim. The word is adopted in the late Lat. ordalium, Fr. ordalie. The ordeal had existed for many ages before it was thus named in Europe. In principle, and often in the very forms used, it belongs to ancient culture, thence flourishing up to the medieval European and modern Asiatic levels, but dying out before modern civilization. Some ordeals, which possibly represent early stages of the practice, are simply magical, being processes of divination turned to legal purpose. Thus in Burma suits are still determined by plaintiff and defendant being each furnished with a candle, equal in size and both lighted at once-he whose candle outlasts the other being adjudged, amid the acclamations of his friends, to have won his cause (Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 254). Even quainter is a Dyak ordeal in Borneo, where the two parties are represented by two shell-fish on a plate, which are irritated by pouring on some lime-juice, and the one first moving settles the guilt or innocence (as has been before arranged) of its owner (St John, Forests of the Far East, i. 89). The administration of ordeals has been much in the hands of priests, and they are more often than not worked on a theological basis, the intervention of a deity being invoked and assumed to take place even when the process is in its nature one of symbolic magic. For instance, an ancient divining instrument consisted of a sieve held suspended by a thread or by a pair of shears with the points stuck into its rim, and considered to move at the mention of the name to be discovered, &c. Thus girls consulted the "sievewitch " (KOσKIVÓμaνTIs) about lovers (Theocr., Idyll. iii. 31). This coscinomancy served in the same way to discover a thief, when, with prayer to the gods for direction, the names of the suspected persons were called over to it (Potter, Greck Antiquities, i. 352). When a suspended hatchet was used in the same way to turn to the guilty, the process was called axinomancy. The sieve-ordeal remained popular in the middle ages (see the description and picture in Cornelius Agrippa, De Occ. Phil.); it is mentioned in Hudibras (ii. 3): th' oracle of sieve and shears That turns as certain as the spheres." From this ancient ordeal is evidently derived the modern Christian form of the key and Bible, where a Psalter or Bible is "When thou sawest suspended by a key tied in at Psalm 1. 18: a thief, then thou consentedst with him "; the bow of the key being balanced on the fingers, and the names of those suspected being called over, he or she at whose name the book turns or falls is the culprit (see Brand, Popular Antiquities, ed. Bohn, iii. 351). One of the most remarkable groups of divinations passing into ordeals are those which appeal to the corpse itself for discovery of its murderer. The idea is rooted in that primitive state of mind which has not yet realized the full effect of death, but regards the body as still able to hear and act. Thus the natives of Australia will ask the dead man carried on his bier of boughs, who bewitched him; if he has died by witchcraft he will make the bier move round, and if the sorcerer who killed him be present a bough will touch him (Eyre, Australia, ii. 344). That this is no isolated fancy is shown by its recurrence among the negroes of Africa, where, for instance, the corpse causes its bearers to dash against some one's house, which accuses the owner of the murder (J. L. Wilson, Western Africa, p. 231; Waitz, ii. 193). This somewhat resembles the well-known ordeal of the bier in Europe in the middle ages, which, however, seems founded on a different principle, the imagination that a sympathetic action of the blood causes it to flow at the touch or neighbourhood of the murderer. Apparently the liquefaction of the blood which in certain cases takes place after death may have furnished the ground for this belief. On Teutonic ground, this ordeal appears in the Nibelungenlied, where the murdered Siegfried is laid on his bier, and Hagen is called on to prove his innocence by going to the |