| Erie on the N. border. One of the first great public improvements was discovered in the N.W. in 1884; in 1883 the output was only 47,632 barrels, four years later it was 5,022,632 barrels, and in 1896 it was 23.941,169 barrels, or 39% of the total output in the United States. For the next ten years, however, there was a decrease, and in 1908 the output had fallen to 10,858,797 barrels, of which 6.748,676 barrels (valued at $6,861,885) was obtained in the Lima district, 4,109,935 barrels (valued at $7.315,667) from the south-in 1845 it was opened to the lake (250 m. from Cincinnati). The east district, and 186 barrels (valued at $950), suitable for lubricating purposes, from the Mecca-Belden district in Trumbull and Lorain counties. Natural gas abounds in the eastern, central and north-western parts of the state. That in the E. was first used in 1866, the N.W. field was opened in 1884, and the central field was opened in 1887. The value of the state's yearly flow increased steadily from $100,000 in 1885 to $5,215,669 in 1889, decreased from the latter year to $1,171,777 in 1897, and then increased to $8,244.835 in 1908. Some of the best sandstone in the United States is obtained from Cuyahoga and Lorain counties; it is exceptionally pure in texture (about 97% being pure silica), durable and evenly coloured light buff, grey or blue grey. From the Ohio sandstone known as Berea grit a very large portion of the country's grindstones and pulpstones has been obtained; in 1908 the value of Ohio's output of these stones was $482,128. Some of the Berca grit is also suitable for making oilstones and scythestones. Although the state has a great amount of limestone, especially in Erie and Ottawa counties, its dull colour renders it unsuitable for most building purposes. It is, however, much used as a flux for melting iron and for making quick lime. The quantity of Portland cement made in Ohio increased from 57,000 barrels in 1890 to 563,113 barrels in 1902 and to 1,521,764 barrels in 1908. Beds of rock gypsum extend over an area of 150 acres or more in Ottawa county. There is some iron ore in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the state, and the mining of it was begun early in the 19th century; but the output decreased from 254,294 long tons in 1889 to only 26.585 long tons (all carbonate) in 1908. Ohio, in 1908, produced 3-427.478 barrels of salt valued at $864,710. Other valuable minerals are clay suitable for making pottery, brick and tile (in 1908 the value of the clay working products was $26,622,490) and sand suitable for making glass. The total value of the state's mineral products in 1908 amounted to $134.499.335. Manufactures.-The total value of the manufactures increased from $348,298.390 in 1880 to $641,688,064 in 1890, and to $832,438,113 in 1900. The value of the factory product was $748,670,855 in 1900 and $960,811,857 in 1905.1 The most important manufacturing industry is that of iron and steel. This industry was established near Youngstown in 1804. The value of the product increased from $65,206,828 in 1890 to $138,935,256 in 1900 and to $152,859.124 in 1905. Foundry and machine-shop products, consisting largely of engines, boilers, metal-working machinery, wood-working machinery, pumping machinery, mining machinery and stoves, rank second among the state's manufactures; their value increased from $43,617,072 in 1890 to $72,399,632 in 1900, and to $94,507,691 in 1905. Flour and grist mill products rank third in the state; the value of the products decreased from $39,468,409 in 1890 to $37.390,367 in 1900, and then increased to $40,855,566 in 1905. Meat (slaughtering and packing) was next in the value of the product, and increased from $20,660.780 in 1900 to $28,729,044 in 1905. Clay products rank fifth in the state; they increased in value from $16.480,812 in 1900 to $25,686,870 in 1905. Boots and shoes rank sixth; their value increased from $8,489,728 in 1890 to $17,920,854 in 1900 and to $25.140,220 in 1905. Other leading manufactures are malt liquors ($21,620.794 in 1905), railway rolling-stock consisting largely of cars ($21,428,227), men's clothing ($18,496,173), planing mill products ($17,725,711), carriages and wagons ($16,096,125). distilled liquors ($15.976,523), rubber and elastic goods ($15,963,603), furniture ($13.322,608), cigars and cigarettes ($13,241,230), agricultural implements ($12,891,197), women's clothing ($12,803,582), lumber and timber products ($12,567,992), soap and candles ($11,791.223), electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($11,019.235), paper and wood pulp ($10,961,527) and refined petroleum ($10,948,864). Population. The population of Ohio in the various census years was: (1800) 45,365; (1810) 230,760; (1820) 581,434; (1830) 937,903; (1840) 1,519,467; (1850) 1,980,329; (1860) 2,339,511; (1870) 2,665,260; (1880) 3,198,062; (1890) 3,672,316; (1900) 4,157,545; (1910) 4,767,121. In 1900 and 1910 it ranked fourth in population among the states. Of the total population in 1900, 4,060,204 or 97.6% were white and 97,341 were coloured (96,901 negroes, 371 Chinese, 27 Japanese and 42 Indians). Of the same total 3,698,811 or 88.9% were native-born and 458,734 were foreign-born; 93.8% of the foreign-born consisted of the following: 204,160 natives of Germany, 65,553 of Great Britain, 55,018 of Ireland, 22,767 of Canada (19,864 English Canadian), 16,822 of Poland, 15,131 of Bohemia, 11,575 of Austria and 11,321 of Italy. In 1906 there were 1,742,873 communicants of different religious denominations, over one-third being Roman Catholics and about one-fifth Methodists. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population (i.e. population of incorporated places having 4000 inhabitants or more) increased from 1,387,884 to 1,864,519, and the semiurban (i.e. population of incorporated places having less than 4000 inhabitants) increased from 458,033 to 549,741, but the rural (i.e. population outside of incorporated places) decreased from 1,826,412 to 1,743,285. The largest cities are Cleveland, Cincinnati, Columbus (the capital), Toledo, Dayton, Youngstown, Akron, Canton, Springfield, Hamilton, Lima and Zanesville. Administration.-Ohio is governed under the constitution of 1851 as amended in 1875, 1883, 1885, 1902, 1903, and 1905. An amendment may be proposed at any time by either branch of the General Assembly, and if after being approved by three-fifths of The great manufacturing centres are Cleveland, Cincinnati, the members of both branches it is also approved at a general Youngstown, Toledo, Columbus, Dayton and Akron, and in 1905 election by a majority of those voting on the question it is declared the value of the products of these cities amounted to 56.7% of that for the entire state. A large portion of the iron and steel is adopted; a constitutional convention may be called after a manufactured in Cleveland, Youngstown, Steubenville, Bellaire, favourable two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of Lorain and Ironton. Most of the automobiles are manufactured the Assembly and a favourable popular vote-a majority of those in Cleveland; most of the cash registers and calculating machines voting on the question; and the question of calling such a in Dayton; most of the rubber and elastic goods in Akron; nearly convention must be submitted to a popular vote at least once one-half of the liquors and about three-fourths of the men's clothing in Cincinnati. East Liverpool leads in the manufacture of pottery; every twenty years. Under the constitution of 1802 and 1851 Toledo in flour and grist mill products; Springfield in agricultural the suffrage was limited to "white male" citizens of the implements; Cincinnati and Columbus in boots and shoes; Cleve-United States, but since the adoption of the Fifteenth Amendland in women's clothing. Transportation and Commerce.-The most important natural means of transportation are the Ohio river on the S. border and Lake The statistics of 1905 were taken under the direction of the United States Census Bureau, but products other than those of the factory system, such, for example, as those of the hand trades, were excluded. ment to the Federal Constitution (1870), negroes vote, though the constitution is unchanged. Since 1894 women who possess the usual qualifications required of men may vote for and be voted for as members of boards of education. The constitution requires that all elections be by ballot, and the Australian ballot system was adopted in 1891; registration is required in cities having a population of 11,800 or more. The executive department | government. The chief county authority is the board of comconsists of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer and attorney-general. As a result of the dispute between Governor Arthur St Clair and the Territorial legislature, the constitution of 1802 conferred nearly all of the ordinary executive functions on the legislature. The governor's control over appointments was strengthened by the constitution of 1851 and by the subsequent creation of statutory offices, boards and commissions, but the right of veto was not given to him until the adoption of the constitutional amendments of 1903. The power as conferred at that time, however, is broader than usual, for it extends not only to items in appropriation bills, but to separate sections in other measures, and, in addition to the customary provision for passing a bill over the governor's veto by a two-thirds vote of each house it is required that the votes for repassage in each house must not be less than those given on the original passage. The governor is elected in November of even-numbered years for a term of two years. He is commanderin-chief of the state's military and naval forces, except when they are called into the service of the United States. He grants pardons and reprieves on the recommendation of the state board of pardons. If he die in office, resign or be impeached, the officers standing next in succession are the lieutenant-governor, the president of the Senate, and the speaker of the House of Representatives in the order named. Members of the Senate and House of Representatives are elected for terms of two years; they must be residents of their respective counties or districts for one year preceding election, unless absent on public business of the state or of the United States. The ratio of representation in the Senate is obtained by dividing the total population of the state by thirty-five, the ratio in the House by dividing the population by one hundred. The membership in each house, however, is slightly above these figures, owing to a system of fractional representation and to the constitutional amendment of 1903 which allows each county at least one representative in the House of Representatives. The constitution provides for a reapportionment every ten years beginning in 1861. Biennial sessions are held beginning on the The first Monday in January of the even-numbered years. powers of the two houses are equal in every respect except that the Senate passes upon the governor's appointments and tries impeachment cases brought before it by the House of Representatives. The constitution prohibits special, local and retroactive legislation, legislation impairing the obligation of contracts, and legislation levying a poll tax for county or state purposes or a tax on state, municipal and public school bonds (amendment of 1905), and it limits the amount and specifies the character of public debts which the legislature may contract. The judicial department in 1910 was composed of a supreme court of six judges, eight circuit courts' of three judges each, ten districts (some with sub-divisions) of the common pleas court, the superior court of Cincinnati, probate courts, courts of insolvency in Cuyahoga and Hamilton counties, juvenile courts (established in 1904), justice of the peace courts and municipal courts. Under the constitution of 1802 judges were chosen by the legislature, but since 1851 they have been elected by direct popular vote-the judges of the supreme court being chosen at large. They are removable on complaint by a concurrent resolution approved by a two-thirds majority in each house of the legislature. The constitution provides that the terms of supreme and circuit judges shall be such even number of years not less than six as may be prescribed by the legislature the statutory provision is six years-that of the judges of the common pleas six years, that of the probate judges four years, that of other judges such even number of years not exceeding six as may be prescribed by the legislature-the statutory provision is six years-and that of justices of the peace such even number of years not exceeding four as may be thus prescribed the statutory provision is four years. Local Government.-The county and the township are the units of the rural, the city and the village the units of the urban local 1 The provision for circuit courts was first made in the constitution by an amendment of 1883. missioners of three members elected for terms of two years. The In 1908 a direct primary law was passed providing for party primaries, those of all parties in each district to be held at the same time (annually) and place, before the same election board, and at public expense, to nominate candidates for township and municipal offices and members of the school board; nominations to be by petition signed by at least 2% of the party voters of the political division, except that for United States senators of 1% is the minimum. The law does not make the nomination of candidates for the United States Senate by this method mandatory nor such choice binding upon the General Assembly. Laws. The property rights of husband and wife are nearly equal; a wife may hold her property the same as if single, and a widower or a widow is entitled to the use for life of one-third of the real estate of which his or her deceased consort was seized at the time of his or her death. Among the grounds on which a divorce may be obtained are adultery, extreme cruelty, fraud, abandonment for three years, gross neglect of duty, habitual drunkenness, a former existing marriage, procurement of divorce without the state by one party, which continues marriage binding on the other, and imprisonment in a penitentiary. For every family in which there is a wife, a minor son, or an unmarried daughter, a homestead not exceeding $1000 in value, or personal property not exceeding $500 in value, is exempt from sale for the satisfaction of debts. In 1908 an act was passed providing for local option in regard to the sale of intoxicating liquors, by an election to be called an initiative petition, signed by at least 35% of the electors of a county. Charitable and Penal Institutions.-The state charitable and penal institutions are supervised by the board of charities of six members (" not more than three... from the same political party ") appointed by the governor, and local institutions by boards of county visitors of six members appointed by the probate judge. Each state institution in addition has its own board of trustees appointed by the governor, and each county infirmary is under the charge of three infirmary directors chosen by popular vote. There are hospitals for the insane at Athens, Columbus, Dayton, Cleveland, Carthage (10 m. from Cincinnati; Longview Hospital), Massillon, Toledo and Lima; a hospital for epileptics at Gallipolis, opened in 1893; institutions for feeble-minded, for the blind (opened 1839) and for the deaf (opened 1829) at Columbus; a state sanatorium for tuberculous patients at Mt. Vernon (opened 1909); an institution for crippled and deformed children (authorized in 1907); a soldiers' and sailors' orphans' home at Xenia (organized in 1869 by the Grand Army of the Republic); a home for soldiers, sailors, marines, their wives, mothers and widows, and army nurses at Madison (established by the National Women's Relief Corps; taken over by the state, 1904); and soldiers' and sailors' homes at Sandusky (opened 1888), supported by the state, and at Dayton, supported by the United States. The state penal institutions are the boys' industrial school near Lancaster (established in 1854 as a Reform Farm), the girls' industrial home (1869) at Rathbone near Delaware, the reformatory at Mansfield (authorized 1884, opened 1896) and the penitentiary at Columbus (1816). State Bank of Indiana of 1834. It became a guarantee of conservative banking, and was highly successful. There were at one time thirtysix branches. Most of the state institutions secured Federal charters after the establishments of the national banking system (1863-1864), but the high price of government bonds and the large amount of capital required led to a reaction, which was only partially checked by the reduction of the minimum capital to $25,000 under the currency act of the 14th of March 1900. History.-Ohio was the pioneer state of the old North-West Territory, which embraced also what are now the states of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, and the N.E. corner of Minnesota. When discovered by Europeans, late in the first half of the 17th century, the territory included within what is now Ohio was mainly a battle-ground of numerous Indian tribes and the fixed abode of none except the Eries who occupied a strip along the border of Lake Erie. From the middle to the close of the 17th century the French were establishing a claim to Education-Congress in 1785 set apart I sq. m. in each township the territory between the Great Lakes and the Ohio river by of 36 sq. m. for the support of education. The public school system, however, was not established until 1825, and then it developed very discovery and occupation, and although they had provoked slowly. The office of state commissioner of common schools was the hostility of the Iroquois Indians they had helped the created in 1837, abolished in 1840 and revived in 1843. School Wyandots, Miamis and, Shawnees to banish them from all districts fall into four classes-cities, villages, townships and special territory W. of the Muskingum river. Up to this time the English districts-each of which has its own board of education elected by had based their claim to the same territory on the discovery popular vote. Laws passed in 1877, 1890, 1893 and 1902 have made education compulsory for children between the ages of eight and of the Atlantic Coast by the Cabots and upon the Virginia, fourteen. The school revenues are derived from the sale and rental Massachusetts and Connecticut charters under which these of public lands granted by Congress, and of the salt and swanip lands colonies extended westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 1701, devoted by the state to such purposes, from a uniform levy of one mill on each dollar of taxable property in the state, from local levies New York, seeking another claim, obtained from the Iroquois (averaging 7.2 mills in township districts and 10-07 mills in separate a grant to the king of England of this territory which they claimed districts in 1908), from certain fines and licences, and from tuition to have conquered but from which they had subsequently been fees paid by non-resident pupils. The total receipts from all sources expelled, and this grant was confirmed in 1726 and again in 1744. in 1908 amounted to $25,987,021; the balance from the preceding About 1730 English traders from Pennsylvania and Virginia year was $11,714,135, and the total expenditures were $24,695,157. Three institutions for higher education are supported in large measure began to visit the eastern and southern parts of the territory by the state: Ohio University at Athens, founded in 1804 on the and the crisis approached as a French Canadian expedition under proceeds derived from two townships granted by Congress to the Céleron de Bienville took formal possession of the upper Ohio Ohio Company; Miami University (chartered in 1809) at Oxford, which received the proceeds from a township granted by Congress in Valley by planting leaden plates at the mouths of the principal the Symmes purchase; and Ohio State University (1873) at Colum- streams. This was in 1749 and in the same year George II. bus, which received the proceeds from the lands granted by Congress chartered the first Ohio Company, formed by Virginians and under the act of 1862 for the establishment of agricultural and London merchants trading with Virginia for the purpose of mechanical colleges, and reorganized as a university in 1878. Wilberforce University (1856), for negroes, near Xenia, is under the control colonizing the West. This company in 1750 sent Christopher of the African Methodist Episcopal Church; but the state established Gist down the Ohio river to explore the country as far as the a normal and industrial department in 1888, and has since contributed mouth of the Scioto river; and four years later the erection to its maintenance. Under an act of 1902 normal colleges, supported of a fort was begun in its interest at the forks of the Ohio. The by the state, have also been created in connexion with Ohio and Miami universities. Among the numerous other colleges and uniFrench drove the English away and completed the fort (Fort versities in the state are Western Reserve University (1826) at Duquesne) for themselves. The Seven Years' War was the Cleveland, the university of Cincinnati (opened 1873) at Cincinnati, immediate consequence and this ended in the cession of the entire and Oberlin College (1833) at Oberlin. North-West to Great Britain. The former Indian allies of the French, however, immediately rose up in opposition to British rule in what is known as the Conspiracy of Pontiac (See PONTIAC), and the supression of this was not completed until Colonel Henry Bouquet made an expedition (1764) into the valley of the Muskingum and there brought the Shawnees, Wyandots and Delawares to terms. With the North-West won from the French Great Britain no longer recognized those claims of her colonies to this territory which she had asserted against that nation, but in a royal proclamation of the 7th of October 1763 the granting of land W. of the Alleghanies was forbidden and on the 22nd of June 1774 parliament passed the Quebec Act which annexed the region to the province of Quebec. This was one of the grievances which brought on the War of Independence and during that war the North-West was won for the Americans by George Rogers Clark (q.v.). During that war also, those states which had no claims in the West contended that title to these western lands should pass to the Union and when the Articles of Confederation were submitted for ratification in 1777, Maryland refused to ratify them except on that condition. The result was that New York ceded its claim to the United States in 1780, Virginia in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785 and Connecticut in 1786. Connecticut, however, excepted a strip bordering on Lake Erie for 120 m. and containing 3,250,000 acres. This district, known as the Western Reserve, was ceded in 1800 on condition that Congress would guarantee the titles to land already granted by the state. Virginia reserved a tract between the Little Miami and Scioto rivers, known as the Virginia Military District, for her soldiers in the War of Independence. Finance.-The revenues of the state are classified into four funds; the general revenue fund, the sinking fund, the state common school fund and the university fund. The chief sources of the general revenue fund are taxes on real and personal property, on liquors and cigarettes, on corporations and on inheritances; in 1909 the net receipts for this fund were $8,043.257, the disbursements $9,103,301, and the cash balance at the end of the fiscal year $3,428,705. There is a tendency to reduce the rate on real property, leaving it as a basis for local taxation. The rate on collateral inheritances is 5%, on direct inheritances 2%, on the excess above $3000. There are state, county and municipal boards of equalization. A special tax is levied for the benefit of the sinking fund-one-tenth of a mill in 1909. The commissioners of the fund are the auditor, the secretary of state and the attorney-general. The public debt, which began to accumulate in 1825, was increased by the canal expenditures to $16,880,000 in 1843. The constitution of 1851 practically deprived the legislature of the power to create new obligations. The funded debt was then gradually reduced until the last installment was paid in 1903. There still remains, however, an irredeemable debt due to the common schools. Ohio University and Ohio State University, in return for their public lands. About one-half of the annual common school fund is derived from local taxes; the state levy for this fund in 1909 was one mill, and the total receipts were $2,382,353. The university fund is derived from special taxes levied for the four institutions which receive aid from the state; in 1909 the levy was 0-245 mills and the total receipts were $582,843. Several banks and trading houses with banking privileges were incorporated by special statutes between 1803 and 1817. Resentment was aroused by the establishment of branches of the Bank of the United States at Chillicothe and Cincinnati in 1817, and an atte.npt was made to tax them out of existence. State officials broke into the vaults of the Chilli cothe branch in 1819 and took out $100,000 due for taxes. The Federal courts compelled a restoration of the money and pronounced the taxing law unconstitutional. In 1845 the legislature chartered for twenty years the State Bank of Ohio, based on the model of the |