OTTO III. (980-1002), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Otto II. and Theophano,daughter of the castern emperor Romanus

the wonder of the

Hrotsuit of Gandersheim, Carmen de gestis Oddonis-all in the | L. von Ranke, Wellgeschichte, Part vii. (Leipzig, 1886); W. von Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bände iii. and iv. (Han- Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881over and Berlin, 1826 fol.); Die Urkunden des Kaisers Ottos I., edited 1890); and Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Otto II. by Th. von Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Berlin, 1837-1840); H. Detmer, Otto II. bis zum Tode seines (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Vaters (Leipzig, 1878); J. Moltmann, Theophano die Gemahlin Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881); R. Köpke and E. Dümmler, Jahrbücher Ottos II. in ihrer Bedeutung für die Politik. Ottos I. und Ottos II. des deutschen Reichs unter Otto I. (Leipzig, 1876); Th. von Sickel, (Göttingen, 1878); and A. Matthaei, Die Händel Ottos II. mit Lothar Das Privilegium Otto I. für die römische Kirche (Innsbruck, 1883); von Frankreich (Halle, 1882). H. von Sybel, Die deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich (Düsseldorf, 1862); O. von Wydenbrugk, Die deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich (Munich, 1862); J. Ficker, Das deutsche Kaiserreich in seinen universalen und nationalen Beziehungen (Innsbruck, 1861); and Deutsches Königthum und Kaiserthum (Innsbruck, 1862); G. Mauren-, was born in July 980, chosen as his father's successor at brecher, Die Kaiserpolitik Otto I." in the Historische Zeitschrift Verona in June 983 and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle (Munich, 1859); G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel, on the 25th of the following December. Otto II. had died a 1844); J. Ficker, Forschungen zur Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte few days before this ceremony, but the news did not reach Italiens (Innsbruck, 1868-1874); F. Fischer, Über Ollos I. Zug in Germany until after the coronation. Early in 984 the king die Lombardei vom Jahre 951 (Eisenberg, 1891); and K. Kötler, Die Ungarnschlacht auf dem Lechfelde (Augsburg, 1884). was seized by Henry II., the Quarrelsome, the deposed duke of OTTO II. (955-983), Roman emperor, was the son of the Bavaria, who claimed the regency as a member of the reigning emperor Otto the Great, by his second wife Adelaide. He house, and probably entertained the idea of obtaining the received a good education under the care of his uncle, Bruno, kingly dignity himself. A strong opposition was quickly aroused, archbishop of Cologne, and his illegitimate half-brother, William, and when Theophano and Adelaide, widow of the emperor archbishop of Mainz. He was chosen German king at Worms in Otto the Great, appeared in Germany, Henry was compelled to 961, crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of May 961, and on hand over the young king to his mother. Otto's mental gifts the 25th of December 967 was crowned joint emperor at Rome were considerable, and were so carefully cultivated by Bernward, by Pope John XIII. On the 14th of April 972 he married afterwards bishop of Hildesheim, and by Gerbert of Aurillac, Theophano, daughter of the eastern emperor Romanus II., and archbishop of Reims, that he was called " after sharing in various campaigns in Italy, returned to Germany world." The government of Germany during his minority and became sole emperor on the death of his father in May 973. was in the hands of Theophano, and after her death in June After suppressing a rising in Lorraine, difficulties arose in 991 passed to a council in which the chief influence was exercised southern Germany, probably owing to Otto's refusal to grant by Adelaide and Willigis, archbishop of Mainz. Having accomthe duchy of Swabia to Henry II., the Quarrelsome, duke of panied his troops in expeditions against the Bohemians and the Bavaria. The first conspiracy was easily suppressed, and in 974 Wends, Otto was declared of age in 995. In 996 he crossed the an attempt on the part of Harold III., king of the Danes, to Alps and was recognized as king of the Lombards at Pavia. throw off the German yoke was also successfully resisted; but Before he reached Rome, Pope John XV., who had invited an expedition against the Bohemians led by the king in person him to Italy, had died, whereupon he raised his own cousin in 975 was a partial failure owing to the outbreak of further Bruno, son of Otto duke of Carinthia, to the papal chair as trouble in Bavaria. In 976 Otto deposed Duke Henry, restored Pope Gregory V., and by this pontiff Otto was crowned emperor order for the second time in Lorraine, and made another expedi- on the 21st of May 996. On his return to Germany, the emperor tion into Bohemia in 977, when King Boleslaus II. promised to learned that Gregory had been driven from Rome, which was return to his earlier allegiance. Having crushed an attempt again in the power of John Crescentius, patrician of the Romans, made by Henry to regain Bavaria, Otto was suddenly attacked and that a new pope, John XVI., had been elected. Leaving by Lothair, king of France, who held Aix in his possession for his aunt, Matilda, abbess of Quedlinburg, as regent of Germany, a few days; but when the emperor retaliated by invading France Otto, in February 998, led Gregory back to Rome, took the he met with little resistance. He was, however, compelled by castle of St Angelo by storm and put Crescentius to death. sickness among his troops to raise the siege of Paris, and on the A visit to southern Italy, where many of the princes did homage return journey the rearguard of his army was destroyed and the to the emperor, was cut short by the death of the pope, to whose baggage seized by the French. An expedition against the Poles chair Otto then appointed his former tutor Gerbert, who took was followed by peace with France, when Lothair renounced the name of Sylvester II. In the palace which he built on the his claim on Lorraine. The emperor then prepared for a journey Aventine, Otto sought to surround himself with the splendour to Italy. In Rome, where he restored Pope Benedict VII., he and ceremonial of the older emperors of Rome, and dreamed of held a splendid court, attended by princes and nobles from making Rome once more the centre of a universal empire. Many names and customs were introduced into his court from that all parts of western Europe. He was next required to punish inroads of the Saracens on the Italian mainland, and in September of Constantinople; he proposed to restore the Roman senate 981 he marched into Apulia, where he met at first with consider- and consulate, revived the office of patrician, called himself able success; but an alliance between the Arabs and the Eastern "consul of the Roman senate and people" and issued a seal Empire, whose hostility had been provoked by the invasion of with the inscription, 46 restoration of the Roman empire." Apulia, resulted in a severe defeat on Otto's troops near Stilo Passing from pride to humility he added "servant of the apostle," in July 982. Without revealing his identity, the emperor and "servant of Jesus Christ" to the imperial title, spent a escaped on a Greek vessel to Rossano. At a diet held at Verona, fortnight in prayer in the grotto of St Clement and did penance largely attended by German and Italian princes, a fresh campaign in various Italian monasteries. Leaving Italy in the summer was arranged against the Saracens. Proceeding to Rome, Otto preceding the year 1000, when it was popularly believed that the secured the election of Peter of Pavia as Pope John XIV. Just end of the world was to come, Otto made a pilgrimage to the as the news reached him of a general rising of the tribes on the tomb of his old friend Adalbert, bishop of Prague, at Gnesen, eastern frontier of Germany, he died in his palace in Rome on and raised the city to the dignity of an archbishopric. He then the 7th of December 983. He left a son, afterwards the emperor went to Aix, and opened the tomb of Charlemagne, where, Otto III., and three daughters. He was buried in the atrium according to a legendary tale, he found the body of the great of St Peter's, and when the church was rebuilt his remains were emperor sitting upright upon a throne, wearing the crown and removed to the crypt, where his tomb may still be seen. Otto, holding the sceptre. Returning to Rome, trouble soon arose who is sometimes called the "Red," was a man of small stature, between Otto and the citizens, and for three days the emperor by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished was besieged in his palace. After a temporary peace, he fled to knight. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of the monastery of Classe near Ravenna. Troops were collected, Christianity in many ways. but whilst conducting a campaign against the Romans, Otto died at Paterno near Viterbo on the 23rd of January 1002, and was buried in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. Tradition

See Die Urkunden des Kaisers Otto II., edited by Th. von Sickel, in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879);

says he was ensnared and poisoned by Stephania, the widow of Crescentius. The mystic erratic temperament of Otto, alternating between the most magnificent schemes of empire and the lowest depths of self-debasement, was not conducive to the welfare of his dominions, and during his reign the conditions of Germany deteriorated. He was liberal to the papacy, and was greatly influenced by the eminent clerics with whom he eagerly associated.

See Thangmar, Vila Bernwardi episcopi Hildesheimensis in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); Lettres de Gerbert, edited by J. Havet (Paris, 1889); Die Urkunden Kaisers Ottos III., edited by Th. von Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879); R. Wilmans, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Otto III. (Berlin, 1837-1840); P. Kehr, Die Urkunden Otto III. (Innsbruck, 1890).

OTTO IV. (c. 1182-1218), Roman emperor, second son of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and Matilda, daughter of Henry II., king of England, was most probably born at Argenton in central France. His father died when he was still young, and he was educated at the court of his uncle Richard I., king of England, under whose leadership he gained valuable experience in war, being appointed duke of Aquitaine, count of Poitou and earl of Yorkshire. When the emperor Henry VI. died in September 1197, some of the princes under the leadership of Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, were anxious to find a rival to Philip, duke of Swabia, who had been elected German king. After some delay their choice fell upon Otto, who was chosen king at Cologne on the 9th of June 1198. Hostilities broke out at once, and Otto, who drew his main support from his hereditary possessions in the Rhineland and Saxony, seized Aix-la-Chapelle, and was crowned there on the 12th of July 1198. The earlier course of the war was unfavourable to Otto, whose position was weakened by the death of Richard of England in April | 1199; but his cause began to improve when Pope Innocent III. declared for him and placed his rival under the ban in April 1201. This support was purchased by a capitulation signed by Otto at Neuss, which ratified the independence and decided the boundaries of the States of the Church, and was the first authentic basis for the practical authority of the pope in central Italy. In 1200 an attack made by Philip on Brunswick was beaten off, the city of Worms was taken, and subsequently the aid of Ottakar I., king of Bohemia, was won for Otto. The papal legate Guido worked energetically on his behalf, several princes were persuaded to desert Philip and by the end of 1203 his success seemed assured. But after a period of reverses, Otto was wounded during a fight in July 1206 and compelled to take refuge in Cologne. Retiring to Denmark, he obtained military assistance from King Waldemar II., and a visit to England procured monetary aid from King John, after which he managed to maintain his position in Brunswick. Preparations were made to drive him from his last refuge, when he was saved by the murder of Philip in June 1208. Many of the supporters of Philip now made overtures to Otto, and an attempt to set up Henry I. duke of Brabant having failed, Otto submitted to a fresh election and was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 11th of November 1208 in the presence of a large gathering of princes. A general reconciliation followed, which was assisted by the betrothal of Otto to Philip's eldest daughter Beatrix, but as she was only ten years old, the marriage was deferred until the 22nd of July 1212. The pope who had previously recognized the victorious Philip, hastened to return to the side of Otto; the capitulation of Neuss was renewed and large concessions were made to the church.

In August 1209 the king set out for Italy. Meeting with no opposition, he was received at Viterbo by Innocent, but refused the papal demand that he should concede to the church all the territories which, previous to 1197, had been in dispute between the Empire and the Papacy, consenting, however, not to claim supremacy over Sicily. He was crowned emperor at Rome on the 4th of October 1 209, a ceremony which was followed by fighting between the Romans and the German soldiers. The pope then requested the emperor to leave Roman territory;

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but he remained near Rome for some days, demanding satisfaction for the losses suffered by his troops. The breach with Innocent soon widened, and in violation of the treaty made with the pope Otto attempted to recover for the Empire all the property which Innocent had annexed to the Church, and rewarded his supporters with large estates in the disputed territories. Having occupied Tuscany he marched into Apulia, part of the kingdom of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., and on the 18th of November 1210 was excommunicated by the pope. Regardless of this sentence Otto completed the conquest of southern Italy, but the efforts of Innocent had succeeded in arousing considerable opposition in Germany, where the rebels were also supported by Philip Augustus, king of France. A number of princes assembled at Nuremberg declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to fill the vacant throne. Returning to Germany in March 1212, Otto made some headway against his enemies until the arrival of Frederick towards the close of the year. The death of his wife in August 1212 had weakened his hold on the southern duchies, and he was soon confined to the district of the lower Rhine, although supported by money from his uncle King John of England. The final blow to his fortunes came when he was decisively defeated by the French at Bouvines in July 1214. He escaped with difficulty from the fight and took refuge in Cologne. His former supporters hastened to recognize Frederick; and in 1216 he left Cologne for Brunswick, which he had received in | 1202 by arrangement with his elder brother Henry. The conquest of Hamburg by the Danes, and the death of John of England, were further blows to his cause. On the 19th of May 1218 he died at the Harzburg after being loosed from the ban by a Cistercian monk, and was buried in the church of St Blasius at Brunswick. He married for his second wife in May 1214 Marie, daughter of Henry I., duke of Brabant, but left no children. See Regesta imperii V., edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881); L, von Ranke, Weltgeschichte, Part viii. (Leipzig, 1887-1888); (Leipzig, 1888); O. Abel, Kaiser Otto IV. und Konig Friedrich 11. W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band v. (Berlin, 1856); E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878); G. Langerfeldt, Kaiser Otto der Vierte (Hanover, 1872); R. Schwemer, Innocenz III. und die deutsche Kirche während des Thronstreites (Strassburg, 1882); and A. Luchaire, Innocent III., la papauté et l'empire (Paris, 1906); and Innocent III., la question d'Orient (Paris, 1906).

OTTO OF FREISING (c. 1114-1158), German bishop and chronicler, was the fifth son of Leopold III., margrave of Austria, by his wife Agnes, daughter of the emperor Henry IV. By her first husband, Frederick I. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, Agnes was the mother of the German king Conrad III., and grandmother of the emperor Frederick I.; and Otto was thus related to the most powerful families in Germany. The notices of his life are scanty and the dates somewhat uncertain. He studied in Paris, where he took an especial interest in philosophy, is said to have been one of the first to introduce the philosophy of Aristotle into Germany, and he served as provost of a Otto became abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Morimond new foundation in Austria. Having entered the Cistercian order, in Burgundy about 1136, and soon afterwards was elected bishop of Freising. This diocese, and indeed the whole of Bavaria, was then disturbed by the feud between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufen, and the church was in a deplorable condition; but a great improvement was brought about by the new bishop in both ecclesiastical and secular matters. In 1147 he took part in the disastrous crusade of Conrad III. The section of the crusading army led by the bishop was decimated, but Otto reached the favour of Conrad's successor, Frederick I.; was probably Jerusalem, and returned to Bavaria in 1148 or 1149. He enjoyed instrumental in settling the dispute over the duchy of Bavaria in 1156; was present at the famous diet at Besançon in 1157, and, still retaining the dress of a Cistercian monk, died at Morimond on the 22nd of September 1158. In 1857 a statue of the bishop was erected at Freising.

Otto wrote a Chronicon, sometimes called De duabus civitatibus, an historical and philosophical work in eight books, which follows to some extent the lines laid down by Augustine and Orosius.

at the castle of Pierrefonds, France. Many so-called “oubliettes in medieval castles were probably outlets for the disposal of drainage, refuse, &c., which at times may have served for the getting rid of prisoners.

OUCH, a brooch, clasp or buckle, especially one ornamented with jewels, enamels, &c., and used to clasp a cope or other ecclesiastical vestment. It is also used, as in Exod. xxxix. 6, of the gold or silver setting of jewels. The word is an example of the misdivision of a substantive and the indefinite article, being properly" nouche," a nouche "being divided into "an ouche," as a napron into an apron, a nadder into an adder, and, reversely, an ewt, i.e. eft, into a newt. "Nouche" was adapted into O. Fr.; whence English took the word, from the Late Lat. nusca, brooch; probably the original is Celtic, cf. O. Irish nasc, ring, nasgaim, fasten.

OUDENARDE (Flemish Oudenaerde), a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders, 18 m. S. of Ghent. Pop. (1904) 6572. While it is best known for the great victory gained by Marlborough and Eugene over the French under Vendôme in 1708, Oudenarde has many features of interest. The town hall, which took ten years to build (1525-1535), has after that of Louvain the most elaborately decorated façade in Belgium. It was designed by H. van Peede and G. de Ronde, and is in tertiary Gothic style. The belfry tower of five storeys with three terraces, surmounted by a golden figure, is a striking feature. The council chamber contains a fine oak door and Gothic chimney-piece, both c. 1530. There are also two interesting old churches, St Walburga, partly of the 12th and partly of the 14th century, and Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century. The former contains several fine pictures by Craeyer and other old Flemish

together, with a dedication to Lord Rochester. In 1678 he | Duc (Dict. de l'architecture) gives a diagram of such an oubliette produced an original comedy, Friendship in Fashion, popular at the moment, though it was hissed off the stage for its gross indecency when it was revived at Drury Lane in 1749. Meanwhile he had conceived an overwhelming passion for Mrs Barry, who filled many of the leading parts in his plays. Six of his letters to her survive, the last of them referring to a broken appointment in the Mall. Mrs Barry seems to have coquetted with Otway, but she had no intention of permanently offending Rochester. In 1678, driven to desperation by Mrs Barry, Otway obtained a commission through Charles, carl of Plymouth, a natural son of Charles II., in a regiment serving in the Netherlands. The English troops were disbanded in 1679, but were left to find their way home as best they could. They were also paid with depreciated paper, and Otway arrived in London late in the year, ragged and dirty, a circumstance utilized by Rochester in his "Sessions of the Poets," which contains a scurrilous attack on his former protégé. Early in the next year (February 1680) | was produced at Dorset Garden the first of Otway's two tragic masterpieces, The Orphan, or The Unhappy Marriage, Mrs Barry playing the part of Monimia. Written in blank verse, which shows a study of Shakespeare, its success was due to the tragic | pathos, of which Otway was a master, in the characters of Castalio and Monimia. The History and Fall of Caius Marius, produced in the same year, and printed in 1692, is a curious grafting of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet on the story of Marius as related in Plutarch's Lives. In 1680 Otway also published The Poet's Complaint of his Muse, or A Satyr against Libells, in which he retaliated on his literary enemies. An indifferent comedy, The Soldier's Fortune (1681), was followed in February 1682 by Venice Preserved, or A Plot Discover'd. The story is founded on the Histoire de la conjuration des Espagnols contre la Venise en 1618, by the Abbé de Saint-Réal, but Otway modified the story considerably. The character of Belvidera is his own, and the leading part in the conspiracy, taken by Bedamor, the Spanish ambassador, is given in the play to the historically insignificant Pierre and Jaffier. The piece has a political meaning, enforced in the prologue. The Popish Plot was, in Otway's mind, and Anthony, 1st earl of Shaftesbury, is caricatured in Antonio. The play won instant success. It was translated into almost every modern European language, and even Dryden said of it: "Nature is there, which is the greatest beauty." The Orphan and Venice Preserved remained stock pieces on the stage until the 19th century, and the leading actresses of the period played Monimia and Belvidera. One or two prefaces, another weak comedy, The Atheist (1684), and two posthumous pieces, a poem, Windsor Castle (1685), a panegyric of Charles II., and a History of the Triumvirates (1686), translated from the French, complete the list of Otway's works. He apparently ceased to struggle against his poverty and misfortunes. The generally accepted story regarding the manner of his death was first given in Theophilus Cibber's Lives of the Poets. He is said to have emerged from his retreat at the Bull on Tower Hill to beg for bread. A passer-by, learning who he was, gave him a guinea, with which Otway hastened to a baker's shop. He began too hastily to satisfy his ravenous hunger, and choked with the first mouthful. Whether this account of his death be true or not, it is certain that he died in the utmost poverty, and was buried on the 16th of April 1685 in the churchyard of St Clement Danes. A tragedy entitled Heroick Friendship was printed in 1686 as Otway's work, but the ascription is unlikely.

The Works of Mr Thomas Otway with some account of his life and writings, published in 1712, was followed by other editions (1757, 1768, 1812). The standard edition is that by T. Thornton (1813). A selection of his plays was edited for the Mermaid series (1891 and 1903) by Roden Noel. See also E. Gosse, Seventeenth Century Studies (1883); and Genest, History of the Stage.

OUBLIETTE, a French architectural term (from oublier, to forget), used in two senses of a dungeon or cell in a prison or castle which could only be reached by a trap-door from another dungeon, and of a concealed opening or passage leading from a dungeon to the moat or river, into which bodies of prisoners who were to be secretly disposed of might be dropped. Viollet le

masters.

The Battle of Oudenarde (June 30th-July 11th 1708) was fought on the ground north-west and north of the town, which was then regularly fortified and was garrisoned by a force of the Allies. The French army under the duke of Burgundy and Marshal Vendôme, after an abortive attempt to invest Oudenarde, took up a defensive position north of the town when Marlborough and Eugene, after a forced march, arrived with the main Allied army. The advanced guard of the Allies under General (Lord) Cadogan promptly crossed the Scheldt and annihilated an outlying body of French troops, and Cadogan established himself on the ground he had won in front of the French centre. But the Allied main army took a long time to defile over the Scheldt and could form up (on the left of Cadogan's detachment) only slowly and by degrees. Observing this, Burgundy resolved to throw forward his right towards Oudenarde to engage and hold the main body of the Allies before their line of battle could be formed. This effected, it was hoped that the remainder of the French army could isolate and destroy Cadogan's detachment, which was already closely engaged with the French centre. But he miscalculated both the endurance of Cadogan's men (amongst whom the Prussians were conspicuous for their tenacity) and the rapidity with which in Marlborough's and Eugene's hands the wearied troops of the Allies could be made to move. Marlborough, who personally directed the operations on his left wing, not only formed his line of battle successfully, but also began seriously to press the forces that had been sent to check his deployment. Before long, while the hostile left wing still remained inactive, the unfortunate troops of the French centre and right were gradually hemmed in by the whole force of the Allies. The decisive blow was delivered by the Dutch marshal, Overkirk, who was sent by Marlborough with a large force (the last reserve of the Allies) to make a wide turning movement round the extreme right of the French, and at the proper time attacked them in rear. A belated attempt of the French left to intervene was checked by the British cavalry, and the pressure on the centre and right, which were now practically surrounded, continued even after nightfall. A few scattered units managed to escape, and the left wing retreated unmolested, but at the cost of about 3000 casualties the Allies inflicted a loss of 6000 killed and wounded and 9000 prisoners on the enemy, who were,

moreover, so shaken that they never recovered their confidence | of the "grenadiers Oudinot," formed of picked troops and