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OLEFINE, in organic chemistry, the generic name given to open chain hydrocarbons having only singly and doubly linked pairs of carbon atoms. The word is derived from the French olefiant (from oléfier, to make oil), which was the name given to ethylene, the first member of the series, by the Dutch chemists, J. R. Deiman, Paets van Troostwyk, N. Bondt and A. Lauwerenburgh in 1795. The simple olefines containing one doublylinked pair of carbon atoms have the general formula (CnH2n; the di-olefines, containing two doubly-linked pairs, have the general formula CnH2-2 and are consequently isomeric with the simple acetylenes. Tri-, tetra- and more complicated members are also known. The name of any particular member of the series is derived from that of the corresponding member of the paraffin series by removing the final syllable " -ane," and replacing it by the syllable "ylene." Isomerism in the olefine series does not appear until the third member of the series is reached. The higher olefines are found in the tar which is obtained by distilling bituminous shales, in illuminating gas, and among the products formed by distilling paraffin under pressure (T. E. Thorpe and J. Young, Ann., 1873, 165, p. 1). The olefines may be synthetically prepared by eliminating water from the alcohols of the general formula CnH2n+1 OH, using sulphuric acid or zinc chloride generally as the dehydrating agent, although phosphorus pentoxide, syrupy phosphoric acid and anhydrous oxalic acid may frequently be substituted. In this method of preparation it is found that the secondary alcohols decompose more readily that the primary alcohols of the series, and when sulphuric acid is used, two phases are present in the reaction, the first being the building up of an intermediate sulphuric acid ester, which then decomposes into sulphuric acid and hydrocarbon: C2H2OH→C2H ̧·HSO,→C2H4+H2SO4. As an alter native to the above method, V. Ipatiew (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 596 et seq.) has shown that the alcohols break up into ethylenes and water when their vapour is passed through a heated tube containing some contact substance, such as graphite, kieselguhr, &c. (see also J. B. Senderens, Comptes rendus, 1907, 144, pp. 382, 1109).

They may also be prepared by eliminating the halogen hydride from the alkyl halides by heating with alcoholic potash, or with litharge at 220° C. (A. Eltekow, Ber., 1878, 11, p. 414); by the action of metals on the halogen compounds CH2Br; by boiling the aqueous solution of nitrites of the primary amines (V. Meyer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 543), C3H,NH2+HNO2 = N2+2H2O+C2Hε; by the electrolysis of the alkali salts of saturated dicarboxylic acids; by the decomposition of B-haloid fatty acids with sodium carbonate, CHACHBr CH(CH1) CO2H=CO2+HBr+CH,CH CH-CH,; by distilling the barium salts of acids CH2-202 with sodium methylate in vacuo (I. Mai, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2135); from the higher alcohols by converting them into esters which are then distilled (F. Krafft, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 3018):

C16H33 CH2 CH2OH CH2CH2-CH2O.CO.R

CHCH:CH2+R-COOH; from tertiary alcohols by the action of acetic anhydride in the presence of a small quantity of sulphuric acid (L. Henry, Comptes rendus, 1907, 144, p. 552):

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In chemical properties, however, they differ very markedly from the paraffins. As unsaturated compounds they can combine with two monovalent atoms. Hydrogen is absorbed readily at ordinary temperature in the presence of platinum black, and paraffins are formed; the halogens (chlorine and bromine) combine directly with them, giving dihalogen substituted compounds; the halogen halides to form monohalogen derivatives (hydriodic acid reacts most readily, hydrochloric acid, least); and it is to be noted that the haloid acids attach themselves in such a manner that the halogen atom unites itself to the carbon atom which is in combination with the fewest hydrogen atoms (W. Markownikow, Ann., 1870, 153, p. 256).

They combine with hypochlorous acid to form chlorhydrins; and are easily soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving rise to sulphuric acid esters; consequently if the solution be boiled with water, the alcohol from which the olefine was in the first place derived is regenerated. The oxides of nitrogen convert them into nitrosites and nitrosates (O. Wallach, Ann., 1887, 241, p. 288, &c.; J. Schmidt, Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2323 et seq.). They also combine with nitrosyl bichloride, iridium chloride), with mercury salts (see K. A. Hofmann bromide and chloride, and with many metallic haloid salts (platinum and J. Sand, Ber., 1900, 33, pp. 1340 et seq.), and those with a tertiary carbon atom yield double salts with zinc chloride. Dilute potassium permanganate oxidizes the olefines to glycols (G. Wagner, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 839). The higher members of the scries readily Ber., 1888, 21, p. 3359). With ozone they form ozonides (C. Harrics, polymerize in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid, zinc chloride, &c,

For the first member of the series see ETHYLENE.

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trimethylene through a heated tube (S. M. Tanatar, Ber., 1899. 32, Propylene, CH, may be obtained by passing the vapour of pp. 702, 1965). It is a colourless gas which may be liquefied by a pressure of 7 to 8 atmospheres. Butylene, CH, exists in three Isomeric forms: normal butylene, CH CH:CH2; pseudo-butylene, is a readily condensible gas. Two spatial modifications of pseudoCHCH CH CH; and isobutylene, (CH3)2C:CH2. Normal butylene butylene, CH-CH: CH-CH,, are known, the cis and the trans; they are prepared by heating the sodium salts of hydro-iodo-tiglic and hydro-iodo-angelic acids respectively (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1900, 313, p. 228). Isobutylene, (CH1):C: CH. is formed in the dry distil lation of fats, and also occurs among the products obtained when the vapour of fusel oil is lcd through a heated tube. It is a gas at ordinary temperature, and may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at -5° C. It combines with acetyl chloride in the presence of zine (CH3)2 C(OH) CH(CH3)2→(CH3)2C:C(CH3)2+CH2:C(CH1)·CH chloride to form a ketone, which on warming breaks down into (CH3)2; hydrochloric acid and mesityl oxide (I. L. Kondakow, Jour. Russ. from unsaturated alcohols by the action of metal-ammonium com- phys. chem. Soc. 26, p. 12). It polymerizes, giving isodibutylene, pounds (E. Chablay, Comptes rendus, 1906, 143, p. 123): CH, and isotributylene, CH24, liquids which boil at 110-113° 2CH,CHÍCH.OH+2NH, Na=CH2:CHCH3+CH,CH-CHONa and 178-181° C. Amylene, CsHo, exists in five isomeric forms, viz. +NaOH+2NH: (n) propylethylene, CH-CH-CH CH:CH2; isopropylethylene, from the lower members of the series by heating them with alkyl (CH12CH CH: CH; symmetrical methyl-ethyl-ethylene, halides in the presence of lead oxide or lime: CH0+2CH,I=2HI+CH, CH: CH·C2H2; unsymmetrical methyl-ethyl-ethylene, CH; and by the action of the zinc alkyls upon the halogen The highest members of the series as yet known are cerotene, CH, (CH)(CH)C:CH; and trimethyl ethylene, (CH1):C:CH(CH2). A. Mailhe (Chem. Zeit., 1906, 30, p. 37) has shown that on passing which is obtained by the distillation of Chinese wax and is a paraffinthe monohalogen derivatives of the paraffins through a glass tube like solid which melts at 57° C., and melene. C30H(?), which is containing reduced nickel, copper or cobalt at 250° C., olefines are obtained by the distillation of bees'-wax. It melts at 62° C. (B. J. produced, together with the halogen acids, and recombination Brodie, Ann., 1848, 67, p. 210; 1849, 71, p. 156). is prevented by passing the gases through a solution of potash. The reaction probably proceeds thus: MCI+CH2+CIHC14 CI-M-CH2CIMCI+CH, since the haloid derivatives of the monovalent metals do not act similarly. The anhydrous chlorides of nickel, cobalt, cadmium, barium, iron and lead act in the same way as catalysts at about 300° C., and the bromides of lead, cadmium, nickel and barium at about 320° C.

substituted olefines.

In their physical properties, the olefines resemble the normal paraffins, the lower members of the series being inflammable gases, the members from Cs to C1 liquids insoluble in water.

OLEG (2-912), prince of Kiev, succeeded Rurik, as being the eldest member of the ducal family, in the principality of Great Novgorod, the first Russian metropolis. Three years later he moved southwards and, after taking Smolensk and other places, fixed his residence at Kiev, which he made his capital. He then proceeded to build a fortress there and gradually compelled the surrounding tribes to pay him tribute, extending his conquests in all directions (883-903) at the expense of the Khazars, who hitherto had held all southern Russia to tribute. In 907,

Oléron, the Uliarus Insula of Pliny, formed part of the duchy of Aquitaine, and finally came into the possession of the French crown in 1370. It gave its name to a medieval code of maritime laws promulgated by Eleanor of Guienne.

with a host made up of all the subject tribes, Slavonic and Finnic, | to S.E., and 7 in extreme breadth; the width of the strait he sailed against the Greeks in a fleet consisting, according to (Pertuis de Maumusson) separating it from the mainland is at the lyetopis, of 2000 vessels, each of which held 40 men; but this one point less than a mile. The island is flat and low-lying and estimate is plainly an exaggeration. On reaching Constantinople, fringed by dunes on the coast. The greater part is very fertile, Oleg disembarked his forces, mercilessly ravaged the suburbs but there are also some extensive salt marshes, and oyster of the imperial city, and compelled the emperor to pay tribute, culture and fishing are carried on. The chief products are provide the Russians with provisions for the return journey, corn, wine, fruit and vegetables. The inhabitants are mostly and take fifty of them over the city. A formal treaty was then Protestants and make excellent sailors. The chief places are concluded, which the Slavonians swore to observe in the names St Pierre (pop. 1582 in 1906), Le Château d'Oléron (1546), of their gods Perun and Volos. Oleg returned to Kiev laden with and the watering-place of St Trojan-les-Bains. golden ornaments, costly cloths, wines, and all manner of precious things. In 911 he sent an embassy of fourteen persons to Constantinople to get the former treaty confirmed and enlarged. The names of these ambassadors are preserved and they point to the Scandinavian origin of Oleg's host; there is not a Slavonic name among them. A new and elaborate treaty, the terms of which have come down to us, was now concluded between the Russians and Greeks, a treaty which evidently sought to bind the two nations closely together and obviate all possible differences which might arise between them in the future. There was also to be free trade between the two nations, and the Russians might enter the service of the Greek emperor if they desired it. The envoys returned to Kiev in 912 after being shown the splendours of the Greek capital and being instructed in the rudiments of the Greek faith. In the autumn of the same year Oleg died and was buried at Kiev.

See S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. i. (St Petersburg, 1895, &c.); M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, Chrestomathy of the History of Russian Law (Rus.), pt. i. (Kiev, 1889). (R. N. B.)

OLEIC ACID, CH2O2 or CH-CH: CH. [CH]7 CO2 H, an organic acid occurring as a glyceride, triolein, in nearly all fats, and in many oils-olive, almond, cod-liver, &c. (see OILS). It appears as a by-product in the manufacture of candles. To prepare it olive oil is saponified with potash, and lead acetate added; the lead salts are separated, dried, and extracted with ether, which dissolves the lead oleate; the solution is then treated with hydrochloric acid, the lead chloride filtered off, the liquid concentrated, and finally distilled under diminished pressure. Oleic acid is a colourless, odourless solid, melting at 14 and boiling at 223° (10 mm.). On exposure it turns yellow, becoming rancid. Nitric acid oxidizes it to all the fatty acids from acetic to capric. Nitrous acid gives the isomeric elaidic acid, CH, CH: CH (CH2l CO2H, which is crystalline and melts at 51° Hydriodic acid reduces both oleic and elaidic acids to stearic acid.

Erucic acid, CH-CH: CH [CH] CO2H, and the isomeric brassidic acid, belong to the oleic acid series. They occur as glycerides in rape-seed oil, in the fatty oil of mustard, and in the oil of grape seeds. Linoleic acid, CH2O2, found as glyceride in drying oils, and ricinoleic acid, CisHa(OH)O, found as glyceride in castor cil, closely resemble oleic acid.

OLEN, a semi-legendary Greek bard and seer, and writer of hymns. He is said to have been the first priest of Apollo, his connexion with whom is indicated by his traditional birthplaceLycia or the land of the Hyperboreans, favourite haunts of the god The Delphian poetess Boeo attributed to him the introducion of the cult of Apollo and the invention of the epic metre Many hymns, nomes (simple songs to accompany the circular dance of the chorus), and oracles, attributed to Olen, were preserved in Delos. In his hymns he celebrated Opis and Arge, two Hyperborean maidens who founded the cult of Apollo in Delos, and in the hymn to Eilythyia the birth of Apollo and Artemis and the foundation of the Delian sanctuary His reputed Lycian origin corroborates the view that the cult of Apollo was an importation from Asia to Greece. His poetry generally was of the kind called hieratic.

See Callimachus, Hymn to Delos, 305; Pausanias i. 18, ii. 13; V. 7; ix. 27; x. 5; Herodotus iv. 35.

OLÉRON, an island lying off the west coast of France, opposite the mouths of the Charente and Seudre, and included in the department of Charente-Inférieure. In 1906 the population numbered 16,747. In area (66 sq. m.) it ranks next to Corsica among French islands. It is about 18 m. in length from N.W.

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OLFACTORY SYSTEM, in anatomy. The olfactory system consists of the outer nose, which projects from the face, and the nasal cavities, contained in the skull, which support the olfactory mucous membrane for the perception of smell in their upper parts, and act as respiratory passages below.

The bony framework of the nose is part of the skull (q.v.), but the outer nose is only supported by bone above; lower down its shape is kept by an "upper" and "lower lateral cartilage" and two or three smaller plates known as "cartilagines minores."

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From R. Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 1.-Profile View of the Bony and Cartilaginous Skeleton of
the Nose.

The expanded lower part of the side of the outer nose is known
as the "ala" and is only formed of skin, both externally and
internally, with fibro-fatty tissue between the layers. The inner
nose or nasal cavities are separated by a septum, which is seldom
quite median and is covered in its lower two-thirds by thick,
highly vascular mucous membrane composed of columnar
ciliated epithelium with masses of acinous glands (see EPITHELIAL
TISSUES) embedded in it, while in its upper part it is covered
by the less vascular but more specialized olfactory membrane.
Near the front of the lower part of the septum a slight opening
into a short blind tube, which runs upward and backward, may
sometimes be found; this is the vestigial remnant of "Jacobson's
organ," which will be noticed later. The supporting framework
of the septum is made up of ethmoid above, vomer below, and
the "septal cartilage" in front. The outer wall of each nasal
cavity is divided into three meatûs by the overhanging turbinated

bones (see fig. 2) Above the superior turbinated is a space between it and the roof known as the "recessus spheno-ethmoidalis," into the back of which the "sphenoidal air sinus" opens. Between the superior and middle turbinated bones is the superior meatus," containing the openings of the "posterior ethmoidal air cells," while between the middle and inferior turbinateds is the "middle meatus," which is the largest of the three and contains a rounded elevation known as the "bulla ethmoidalis." Above and behind this is often an opening for the "middle cthmoidal cells," while below and in front a deep sickle-shaped gutter runs, the "hiatus semilunaris," which communicates above with the "frontal air sinus" and below with the opening into the "antrum of Highmore " or " maxillary antrum." So deep is this hiatus semilunaris that if, in the dead subject, water is poured into the frontal sinus it all passes into the

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In the third week of intra-uterine life two pits make their appearolfactory or nasal pits, they are the first appearance of the true ance on the under side of the front of the head, and are known as the olfactory region of the nose, and some of their epithelial lining cells send off axons (sce NERVOUS SYSTEM) which arborize with the Opening of middle ethmoidal cells Openings of posterior ethmoidal cells Recessus spheno-ethmoidalis

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antrum and none escapes through the nostrils until that cavity is full. The passage from the frontal sinus to the hiatus semilunaris is known as the "infundibulum," and into this open the "anterior ethmoidal cells," so that the antrum acts as a sink for the secretion of these cells and of the frontal sinus. Running downward and forward from the front of the middle turbinated bone is a curved ridge known as the "agger nasi," which forms the anterior boundary of a slightly depressed area called the "atrium."

The "inferior meatus" is below the inferior turbinated bone, and, when that is lifted up, the valvular opening of the nasal duct (see EYE) is seen. In front of the inferior meatus there is a depression just above the nostril which is lined with skin instead of mucous membrane and from which short hairs grow; this is called the "vestibule." The roof of the nose is very narrow, and here the olfactory nerves pass in through the cribriform plate. The floor is a good deal wider so that a coronal section through cach nasal cavity has roughly the appearance of a rightangled triangle. The anterior wall is formed by the nasal bones and the upper and lower lateral cartilages, while posteriorly

dendrites of the cells of the olfactory lobe of the brain and so form the olfactory nerves (see J. Disse, Anat. Hefte, 1897; also P. Anat. Soc., J. Anal. and Phys., 1897, p. 12). Between the olfactory pits the broad median fronto-nasal process grows down from the forehead region to form the dorsum of the nose (see fig. 3). and the anterior part of the nasal septum, while outside them the lateral nasal processes grow down, and later on meet the maxillary processes from the first visceral arch. In this way the nasal cavities are formed, but for some time they are separated from the mouth by a thin bucconasal membrane which eventually is broken through, after this the mouth and nose are one cavity until the formation of the palate in the third month (see MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS). In the third month Jacobson's organ may be seen as a wellmarked tube lined with respiratory mucous membrane and running upward and backward, close to the septum, from its orifice, which is just above the foramen of Stensen in the anterior palatine canal. In man it never has any connexion with the olfactory membrane or olfactory nerves. Internally and below it is surrounded by a delicate sheet of cartilage, which is distinct from that of the nasal septum. No explanation of the function of Jacobson's organ in man is known, and it is probably entirely atavistic. At birth the nasal cavities are very shallow from above downward, but they rapidly deepen till the age of puberty. The external nose at birth projects very little from the plane of the face except at the tip, the button-like shape of which in babies is well known. In the second and third year the bridge becomes more prominent, but after puberty the nasal bones tend to tilt upward at their lower ends to form the eminence which is seen at its best in the Roman nose. (For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., London, 1908.) Comparative Anatomy.

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It

In Amphioxus among the Acrania there is a ciliated pit above the anterior end of the central nervous system, which is probably a rudiment of an unpaired olfactory organ. In the Cyclostomata (lampreys shares a common opening with the pituitary invagination. and hags) the pit is at first ventral, but later becomes dorsal and furthermore becomes divided internally into two lateral halves. In fishes there are also two lateral pits, the nostrils of which open sometimes, as in the elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), on to the ventral surface of the snout, and sometimes, as in the higher fishes, on to the dorsal surface. Up to this stage the olfactory organs are mere pits, but in the Dipnoi (mud-fish) an opening is established from them into the front of the roof of the mouth, and so they serve as respiratory passages as well as organs for the sense of smell. In the higher Amphibia the nasal organ becomes included in the skull too, turbinal ingrowths are found, and the naso-lachrymal duct and respiratory and olfactory parts are distinguished In this class, appears. In the lizards, among the Reptilia, the olfactory and respiratory parts are very distinct, the latter being lined only by stratified epithelium unconnected with the olfactory nerves. There this is a large nasal gland In crocodiles the hard palate is formed, is one true turbinal bone growing from the cuter wall, and close to and there is henceforward a considerable distance between the openings of the external and internal nares. In this order. too (Crocodilia)

air sinuses are first found extending from the olfactory cavities | P. Zool. Soc. (1891), and in the kangaroo, J. Anal. and Phys., vol. into the skull-bones. The birds' arrangement is very like that of the reptiles; olfactory and respiratory chambers are present, and into the latter projects the true turbinal, though there is a pseudo-turbinal in the upper or olfactory chamber. In mammals the olfactory chamber of the nose is variously developed; most of them are "macrosmatic," and have a large area of olfactory mucous membrane; some, like the seals, whalebone whales, monkeys and man are microsmatic," while the toothed whales have the olfactory region practically suppressed in the adult, and are said to be "anosmatic There are generally five turbinal bones in macrosmatic mammals, so that man has a reduced number The lowest of the series or "maxillo-turbinal" is the equivalent of the single true turbinal bone of birds and reptiles, and in most mammals is a double scroll, one Maxillary

26 (1891), also G. Eliot Smith on Jacobson's organ, Anatom. Anzeiger, xi. Band No 6 (1895). For general literature on the comparative anatomy of the olfactory system up to 1906, see R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated and adapted by W. N Parker (London, 1907). (F. G. P.)

Thalamen

cephalon

Prosencephalon

Stomatodacum

Pericardium
I

Globular process

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"

Prosencephalon

DISEASES OF OLFACTORY SYSTEM External Affections and Injuries of the Nose.-Acne rosacea is one of the most frequent nasal skin affections. In an early stage it consists of dilatation or congestion of the capillaries, and later of a hypertrophy of the sebaceous follicles. This may be accompanied by the formation of pustules. In an exaggerated stage the sebaceous glands become overgrown, forming large protuberant nodular masses over which the dilated capillaries are plainly visible. This condition is termed lipoma nasi (rhinophynia or hammer nose), though there is no increase in fatty tissue. Nasal acne occurs mainly in dyspeptics and tea drinkers, and the more advanced condition, lipoma nasi, chiefly in elderly men addicted to alcoholism. The treatment of acne is the removal of the dyspepsia with the local application of sulphur ointment or of a lotion of perchloride of mercury. Unsightly capillaries may be destroyed by an application of the galvano-cautery or by electrolysis. Free dissection of the redundant tissue from around the nasal cartilages is necessary in lipoma nasi, skin being grafted on to the raw surface.

[graphic]

II

2000000

-Olfactory

pit

Mesial
nasal
process

hemisphere

Lateral nasal process

The nasal bones are frequently frac tured as the result of direct violence, as by a blow from a cricket ball or stick. The fracture is usually transverse, and may be communicated, leading to much deformity if left untreated. The treatment is the immediate reposition of the bony fragments. The old-standing cases where there is considerable depression Cerebral wiring the fragments may be resorted to. In numerous cases the subcutaneous injection of paraffin may improve the shape of the organ. Deflection of the septum may also result from similar injuries, and lateral displacement may cause subsequent nasal obstruction and require the straightening of the septum. Olfactory Lesions involving considerable loss of substance due to injury or to syphilitic or tuberculous disease have led to many methods being devised to supply the Globular missing part. In the Indian method of rhinoplasty a flap is cut from the forehead, to which it is left attached by a pedicle: the flap is then turned downwards to cover the missing portion of the nose; when the parts have united, the pedicle is cut through. In the Italian operation devised by Tagliacotius (Tagliacozzi), a flap was taken from the patient's arm, the arm being kept fixed to the head until the flap has united.

[graphic]

pit

Mesial
nasal

process

process

the two globular processes, the inter-
vention of the olfactory pits between
the mesial and lateral nasal processes,
and the approximation of the maxillary
and lateral nasal processes, which, how-
ever, are separated by the oculo-nasal
sulcus (from His).

IV. Transverse section of head of embryo,
showing the deepening of the olfactory
pits and their relation to the hemi-
sphere vesicles of the fore-brain.

leaf turning upward and the other down. Jacobson's organ first appears in amphibians, where it is found as an anteroposterior gutter in the floor of the nasal cavity, sometimes being close to the septum, at other times far away, though the former position is the more primitive. In reptiles the roof of the gutter closes in on each side, and a tube is formed lying below and internal to the nasal cavity, opening anteriorly into the mouth and ending by a blind extremity, posteriorly to which branches of the olfactory and trigeminal nerves are distributed. In the higher reptiles (crocodiles and chelonians) the organ is suppressed in the adult, and the same applies to birds; but in the lower mammals, especially the monotremes, it is very well developed, and is enclosed in a cartilaginous sheath, from which a turbinal process projects into its interior. In other mammals, with the exception of the Primates and perhaps the Chiroptera, the organ is quite distinct, though even in man, as has been shown, its presence can be demonstrated in the embryo. The special opening through which it communicates with the mouth is the foramen of Stensen in the anterior palatine canal.

See J Symington on the organ of Jacobson in the Ornithorynchus,

Diseases of the Interior of the Nose.Epistaxis or bleeding of the nose may arise from many conditions. It is particularly common in young girls at the time of puberty, being a form of vicarious menstruation. It also occurs in cerebral congestion, heart disease, scurvy, haemiophylia, or as a sign of local disease. The treatment will depend upon the cause. In patients with high arterial tension epistaxis may be of direct benefit In other cases rest on the back may be tried, with the local application of tanno-gallic acid or hazelin or adrenalin, either in a spray or on absorbent cotton. If these should not stop the haemorrhage the nose must be plugged. In cases which arise from specific forms of ulceration, such as tuberculosis and syphilis, the area should be rendered anaesthetic by cocaine, the bleeding points found, and the vessels obliterated by the electrocautery Polypi in the nasal passages are also a frequent cause of epistaxis.

Rhinitis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose, occurs both in acute and chronic forms. Of the acute the simple catarrhal form termed "coryza forms the widely known" cold in the head." The tendency of acute coryza to affect entire families, and to be communicable from one person to another, points to its infectious nature, though probably some predisposing condition of health is necessary for its development. It is considered proved that the symptoms are due to the presence and development of

several distinct micro-organisms. Of these the most important is the micrococcus catarrhalis described by Martin Kirchner in 1890, but Friedländer's pneumo-bacillus has also been found. In ordinary cases of coryza, sneezing, congestion of the nasal mucous membrane and a profuse watery discharge usher in the attack, and the inflammation may extend to the pharynx, larynx and trachea, blocking of the Eustachian tube producing a temporary deafness. Later the discharge may become muco-purulent. One attack of coryza conveys no immunity from subsequent attacks and some persons seem particularly susceptible. The treatment is directed towards increasing the action of the kidneys, skin and bowels. A brisk mercurial purgative is indicated, and salicin and aspirin are useful in many cases. Considerable relief may be obtained by washing out the nasal cavities several times a day with a warm lotion containing boric acid. Those who are unusually prone to catch cold should habituate themselves to an open air life by day and an open window by night, adenoids or enlarged tonsils should be removed and the diet should be modified so as not to contain an excess of starchy foods. An acute croupous inflammation occasionally attacks the nasal mucous membrane when the Klebs-Löffler bacillus is not present, but the nasal membrane often shares in true diphtheria, or it may be the only organ to be infected thereby. The diagnosis is of course bacteriological.

As a result of frequent catarrhal attacks the nasal mucous membrane may become the seat of a chronic rhinitis in which the turbinals become swollen with oedema, and congested and finally thickened by increase in the fibrous tissue. There is an excessive muco-purulent discharge, and the patient is unable to breathe through the nose, deafness and adenoid vegetations may be the result. In the early stages the nasal cavity should be washed out night and morning with an alkaline lotion, such as bicarbonate of soda, or a caustic, such as chromic acid, should be used in swabbing over the affected part. The application of the galvano-cautery here is useful, but when the areas are much hypertrophied the hypertrophied portion of the inferior turbinals may have to be removed under cocaine. A special form of recurrent hypertrophic rhinitis is hay fever (q.v.). Rhinitis Sicca is a form of chronic rhinitis in which there is but little discharge, crusts or scabs which may be difficult to remove forming in the nasal cavities; the pharynx may be also affected. Atrophic rhinitis or ozaena usually attacks children and young adults, following on measles or scarlet fever. Crusts form, and favour the retention of the purulent discharge. The disease may extend to the nasal sinuses and septic absorption take place. The treatment is to keep the nasal cavity clean by irrigation with solution of permanganate of potash or carbolic acid lotion, the nose then being wiped and smeared with lanolin or partially plugged with a tampon of cotton-wool, the process being repeated at frequent intervals, the general treatment being that for anaemia. Disease of the middle turbinated bone is also a cause of an offensive nasal discharge, and rhinitis occurring in infants gives rise to the obstructed respiration known as "the snuffles." Three forms of nasal polypi are described, the mucous, the fibrous and the malignant. The general symptoms of nasal polypus are a feeling of stuffiness in one or both nostrils, inability to breathe down the nose and a thin watery discharge. A nasal tone of voice, together with cough and asthma, may be present, or there may be partial or complete loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). The treatment of mucous polypi is their removal by the forceps or the snare, the base of the growth being afterwards carefully examined and cauterized with the galvano-cautery.

Fibrous polypi are usually very vascular, and may be a cause of severe epistaxis as well as of obstruction of breathing, "dead voice," sleepiness and deafness. The increasing growth may lead to expansion of the bridge of the nose and deformity of the facial bones, known as "frog-face." The tendency of fibrous polypi to take on malignant sarcomatous characters is specially noticeable. Extirpation of the growth as soon as its nature is recognized is therefore urgently demanded.

The chief diseases of the nasal septum are abscesses, due to the breaking down of haematomata, syphilitic gummata (leading to deep excavation and bony destruction), tuberculous disease in which a small yellowish grey ulcer forms and what is known as perforating ulcer of the septum, which is met with just within the nostril. The latter tends to run a chronic course, and the detachment of one of its crusts may cause epistaxis. Rhinoscleroma was first described by F. Hebra in 1870, and is endemic in Russian Poland, Galicia and Hungary, but is unknown in England, except amongst alien immigrants. The infecting organism is a specific bacillus, and the disease starts as a chronic smooth painless obstruction with the formation of dense plate-like masses of tissue of stony hardness. Treatment other than that of excision of the masses has proved useless, though the recent plan of introduction of the injection of a vaccine of the bacillus may in future modify the progress of the disease.

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over the middle turbinated bone, or an acute inflammation may spread to the frontal sinuses, giving rise to an empyema in that locality. There is severe frontal pain, and in some cases a fulness on the forehead over the affected side, the pus often pointing in this site, or there may be a discharge of pus through the nose. The treatment is that of incision and irrigation of the sinus (in some cases scraping out of the sinus) and the re-establishment of communication with the nose, with free drainage. The ethmoidal and sphenoidal sinuses are also frequently the site of empyemata, giving rise to pain in the orbit and the back of the nose, and a discharge into the nasopharynx. In the case of the ethmoidal sinus it may give rise to exophthalmus and to strabismus (squint), with the formation of a tumour at the inner wall of the orbit and fever and delirium at night. In the young the condition may become rapidly fatal. Suppuration in the sphenoidal sinus may lead to blindness from involvement of the sheath of the optic nerve, and dangerous complications such as septic basal meningitis and thrombosis of the cavernous sinus may Occur. Acute ethmoiditis and sphenoiditis are serious conditions demanding immediate surgical intervention. (H. L. H.)

OLGA, wife of Igor, prince of Kiev, and afterwards (from 945) regent for Sviatoslav her son, was baptized at Constantinople about 955 and died about 969. She was afterwards canonized in the Russian church, and is now commemorated on the 11th of July

OLGIERD (d. 1377), grand-duke of Lithuania, was one of the seven sons of Gedymin, grand-duke of Lithuania, among whom on his death in 1341 he divided his domains, leaving the youngest, Yavnuty, in possession of the capital, Wilna, with a nominal priority. With the aid of his brother Kiejstut, Olgierd in 1345 drove out the incapable Yavnuty and declared himself grandduke. The two and thirty years of his reign (1345-1377) were devoted to the development and extension of Lithuania, and he lived to make it one of the greatest states in Europe. Two factors contributed to produce this result, the extraordinary political sagacity of Olgierd and the life-long devotion of his brother Kiejstut. The Teutonic knights in the north and the Tatar hordes in the south were equally bent on the subjection of Lithuania, while Olgierd's eastern and western neighbours, Muscovy and Poland, were far more frequently hostile competitors than serviceable allies. Nevertheless, Olgierd not only succeeded in holding his own, but acquired influence and territory at the expense of both Muscovy and the Tatars, and extended the borders of Lithuania to the shores of the Black Sea. The principal efforts of this eminent empire-maker were directed to securing those of the Russian lands which had formed part of the ancient grand-duchy of Kiev. He procured the election of his son Andrew as prince of Pskov, and a powerful minority of the citizens of the republic of Novgorod held the balance in his favour against the Muscovite influence, but his ascendancy in both these commercial centres was at the best precarious. On the other hand he acquired permanently the important principalities of Smolensk and Bryansk in central Russia. His relations with the grand-dukes of Muscovy were friendly on the whole, and twice he married orthodox Russian princesses; but this did not prevent him from besieging Moscow in 1368 and again in 1372, both times unsuccessfully. Olgierd's most memorable feat was his great victory over the Tatars at Siniya Vodui on the Bug in 1362, which practically broke up the great Kipchak horde and compelled the khan to migrate still farther south and establish his headquarters for the future in the Crimea. Indeed, but for the unceasing simultaneous struggle with the Teutonic knights, the burden of which was heroically borne by Kiejstut, Russian historians frankly admit that Lithuania, not Muscovy, must have become the dominant power of eastern Europe. Olgierd died in 1377, accepting both Christianity and the tonsure shortly before his death. His son Jagiello ultimately ascended the Polish throne, and was the founder of the dynasty which ruled Poland for nearly 200 years.

See Kazimierz Stadnicki, The Sons of Gedymin (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1849-1853), Vladimir Bonifatevich Antonovich, Monograph on the History of Western Russia (Rus.), vol. i. (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. B.)

OLHÃO, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro, 5 m. E. of Faro, on the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900) 10,009. channel among the sandy islands which fringe the coast. Wine, Olhão has a good harbour at the head of the Barra Nova, a deep fruit, cork, baskets and sumach are exported in small coasting

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