and when it was not customary to write on the back as well as | Constantinople and in Rome; and, at least as far back as the on the face of the material. The invention of parchment with its two surfaces, recto and verso, equally available for the scribe, ensured the development of the codex. (See MANUSCRIPT.) The animals whose skins were found appropriate for the manufacture of the new parchment were chiefly sheep, goats and calves. But in course of time there has arisen a distinction between the coarser and finer qualities of the material; and, while parchment made from ordinary skins of sheep and goats continued to bear the name, the finer kinds of manufacture produced from the more delicate skins of the calf or kid, or of still-born or newly-born calves or lambs, came to be generally known as vellum (Fr. velin). The skin codices of the early and middle ages being for the most part composed of the finer kinds of material, it has become the custom to describe them as of vellum, although in some instances it would be more correct to call the material parchment. The ordinary modern process of preparing the skins is by washing, liming, unhairing, scraping, washing a second time, stretching evenly on a frame, scraping a second time and paring down inequalities, dusting with sifted chalk and rubbing with pumice. Somewhat similar methods, no doubt varying in details, must have been employed from the first. 3rd century, MSS., generally of the Scriptures, were produced written in silver and gold on the precious stained vellum: a useless luxury, denounced by St Jerome in a well-known passage in his preface to the Book of Job. A certain number of early examples still survive, in a more or less perfect condition: such as the MS. of the Gospels in the Old Latin version at Verona, of the 4th or 5th century; the celebrated codex of Genesis in the Imperial Library at Vienna; the Rossano MS. and the Patmos MS. of the Gospels in Greek; the Gothic Gospels of Ulfilas at Upsala, and others, of the 6th century, besides a few somewhat later specimens. In the revival of learning under Charlemagne a further encouragement was given to the production of such codices; but soon afterwards the art of purple-staining appears to have been lost or abandoned. A last trace of it is found in a few isolated instances of stained vellum leaves inserted for ornament in MSS. of the period of the Renaissance. AUTHORITIES.-Particulars of the early manufacture and use of parchment and vellum are to be found in most of the handbooks on palaeography and book-development, such as W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (3rd ed., 1896); G. Birt, Das antike Buchwesen (1882); Sir E. M. Thompson, Handbook of Greck and Latin Palaeography (3rd ed., 1906). See also La Lande. Art de faire le parchemin (1762); G. Peignot, Essai sur l'histoire du parchemin du velin (1812); Á. Watt, The Art of Leather Manufacture (1885). (E. M. T.) PARCLOSE (from the O. Fr. parclore, to close thoroughly; Lat. claudere), an architectural term for a screen or railing used to enclose a chantry, tomb, chapel, &c., in a church, and for the space thus enclosed. The comparatively large number of ancient and medievalet MSS. that have survived enables us to gather some knowledge of the varieties of the material in different periods and in different countries. We know from references in Roman authors that parchment or vellum was entering into competition with papyrus as a writing material at least as early as the 2nd century of our era (see MANUSCRIPT), though at that time it was probably not so skilfully prepared as to be a dangerous rival. But the surviving examples of the 3rd and 4th centuries show that a rapid improvement must almost at once have been effected, for the vellum of that age is generally of a thin and delicate texture, firm and crisp, with a smooth and glossy surface. Here it should be noticed that there was always, and in some periods and in some countries more than in others, a difference in colour between the surface of the skin from which the hair had been removed and the inner surface next to the flesh of the animal, the latter being whiter than the other. This difference is generally more noticeable in the older examples, those of a later period having usually been treated more thoroughly with chalk and pumice. To obviate any unsightly contrast, it was customary, when making up the quires for a volume, to lay hair-side next to hair-side and flesh-side to flesh-side, so that, at whatever place the codex was opened, the tint of the open pages should be uniform. As a rule, the vellum of early MSS., down to and including the 6th century, is of good quality and well prepared. After this, the demand increasing, a greater amount of inferior material came into the market. The manufacture necessarily varied in different countries. In Ireland and England the vellum of the early MSS. is usually of stouter quality than that of foreign | examples. In Italy and Greece and in the European countries generally bordering on the Mediterranean, a highly polished surface came into favour in the middle ages, with the ill effect that the hardness of the material resisted absorption, and that there was always a tendency for ink and paint to flake off. On the other hand, in western Europe a soft pliant vellum was in vogue for the better classes of MSS. from the 12th century onwards. In the period of the Italian Renaissance a material of extreme whiteness and purity was affected. Examples of uterine vellum, prepared from still-born or newly-born young, are met with in choice volumes. A remarkable instance of a codex composed of this delicate substance is the Additional MS. 23935, of the 13th and 14th centuries, in the British Museum, which is made up of as many as 579 leaves, without being a volume of abnormal bulk. In conclusion, we must briefly notice the employment of vellum of a sumptuous character to add splendour to specially | choice codices of the early middle ages. The art of dyeing the material with a rich purple colour was practised both in PARDAILLAN, the name of an old French family of Armagnac, of which several members distinguished themselves in the service of the kings of France in the 16th and 17th centuries. Antoine Arnaud de Pardaillan, maréchal de camp, served Henry IV. in Franche-Comté, Picardy and Savoy, and was created marquis de Montespan in 1612 and marquis d'Antin in 1615 under Louis XIII. His grandson Louis Henri, marquis de Montespan, was the husband of Mme de Montespan, the mistress of Louis XIV. Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin (16651736), legitimate son of the famous marquise, became lieutenantgeneral of the armies of the king in 1702, governor of the Orléanais, director-general of buildings in 1708, lieutenantgeneral in Alsace, member of the council of regency, and minister of state. He was created duc d'Antin in 1711. The last duc d'Antin, Louis, died in 1757. PARDESSUS, JEAN MARIE (1772-1853), French lawyer, was born at Blois on the 11th of August 1772. He was educated by the Oratorians, and then studied law, at first under his father, a lawyer at the Présidial, who was a pupil of Robert J. Pothier. In 1796, after the Terror, he married, but his wife died at the end of three years. He was thus a widower at the age of twenty-seven, but refused to remarry and so give his children a step-mother. He wrote a Trailé des servitudes (1806), which went through eight editions, then a Traité du contrat et des lettres de change (1809), which pointed him out as fitted for the chair of commercial law recently formed at the faculty of law at Paris. The emperor, however, had insisted that the position should be open to competition. Pardessus entered (1810) and was successful over two other candidates, André M. J. J. Dupin and Persil, who afterwards became brilliant lawyers. His lectures were published under the title Cours de droit commercial (4 vols., 1813-1817). In 1815 Pardessus was elected deputy for the department of Loir-et-Cher, and from 1820 to 1830 was constantly re-elected; then, however, he refused to take the oath of allegiance to Louis Philippe, and was deprived of his office. After the publication of the first volume of his Collection des lois maritimes antérieures au xviiiie siècle (1828) he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. He continued his collection of maritime laws (4 vols., 1828-1845), and published Les Us et coutumes de la mer (2 vols., 1847). He also brought out two volumes of Merovingian diplomas (Diplomata, chartae, epistolae, leges, 1843-1840); vols. iv.-vi. of the Table chronologique des diplomes; and vol. xxi. of Ordonnances des rois de France (1849), preceded by an Essai sur l'ancienne organisation judiciaire, which was reprinted in part in 1851. In 1843 Pardessus published a critical edition of the Loi salique, followed by 14 dissertations, which greatly advanced the knowledge of the subject. He died at Pimpeneau near Blois on the 27th of May 1853. See notices in Journal général de l'instruction publique (July 27, 1853), in the Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes (3rd series, 1854, v. 453), and in the "Histoire de l'académie des inscriptions et belles lettres " (vol. xx. of the Mémoires de l'académie, 1861). PARDO BAZÁN, EMILIA (1851- ), Spanish author, was born at Corunna, Spain, on the 16th of September 1851. Married in her cighteenth year to Sr D. José Quiroga, a Galician country gentleman, she interested herself in politics, and is believed to have taken an active part in the subterranean campaign against Amadeo of Savoy and, later, against the republic. In 1876 she came into notice as the successful competitor for a literary prize offered by the municipality of Oviedo, the subject of her essay being the Benedictine monk, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo. This was followed by a series of articles inserted in La Ciencia cristiana, a magazine of the purest orthodoxy, edited by Juan M. Orti y Lara. Her first novel, Pascual López (1879), is a simple exercise in fantasy of no remarkable promise, though it contains good descriptive passages of the romantic type. It was followed by a more striking story, Un Viaje de novios (1881), in which a discreet attempt was made to introduce into Spain the methods of French realism. The book caused a sensation among the literary cliques, and this sensation was increased by the appearance of another naturalistic tale, La Tribuna (1885), wherein the influence of Zola is unmistakable. Meanwhile, the writer's reply to her critics was issued under the title of La Cuestión palpitante (1883), a clever piece of rhetoric, but of no special value as regards criticism or dialectics. The naturalistic scenes of El Cisne de Vilamorta (1885) are more numerous, more pronounced, than in any of its predecessors, though the authoress shrinks from the logical application of her theories by supplying a romantic and inappropriate ending. Probably the best of Sra Pardo Bazán's work is embodied in Los Pazos de Ulloa (1886), the painfully exact history of a decadent aristocratic family, as notable for its portraits of types like Nucha and Julián as for its creation of characters like those of the political bravos, Barbacana and Trampeta. Yet perhaps its most abiding merit lies in its pictures of country life, its poetic realization of Galician scenery set down in an elaborate, highly-coloured style, which, if not always academically correct, is invariably effective. A sequel, with the significant title of La Madre naturaleza (1887), marks a further advance in the path of naturalism, and henceforward Sra Pardo Bazán was universally recognized as one of the chiefs of the new naturalistic movement in Spain. The title was confirmed by the publication of Insolación and Morriña, both issued in 1889. In this year her reputation as a novelist reached its highest point. Her later stories, La Cristiana (1890), Cuentos de amor (1894), Arco Iris (1895), Misterio (1903) and La Quimera (1905), though not wanting in charm, awakened less interest. In 1905 she published a play entitled Verdad, remarkable for its boldness rather than for its dramatic qualities. (J. F.-K.) PARDOE, JULIA (1806-1862), English writer, was born at Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1806. When fourteen years old she published a volume of poems. In 1835 she went to Constantinople and her experiences there furnished her with material for vivid pictures of Eastern life in the City of the Sullan (1837), | Romance of the Harem (1839) and Beautics of the Bosphorus (1830). Her other works, not always historically accurate, include Louis XIV. and the Court of France in the Seventeenth Century (1847); The Court and Reign of Francis 1.(1849); The Life and Memoirs of Maric de Medici (1852); Episodes of French History during the Consulate and the First Empire (1859); and several sprightly and pleasant novels. In 1860 she was granted a civil list pension. She died on the 26th of November 1862. PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty), the remission, by the power entrusted with the execution of the laws, of the penalty attached to a crime. The right of pardoning is coextensive with the right of punishing. In a perfect legal system, says Beccaria, pardons should be excluded, for the clemency of the prince seems a tacit disapprobation of the laws (Dei Delitti e delle pene, ch. xx.). In practice the prerogative is extremely valuable, when used with discretion, as a means of adjusting the different degrees of moral guilt in crimes or of rectifying a miscarriage of justice. By the law of England pardon is the sole prerogative of the king, and it is declared by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 that no other person has power to pardon or remit any treasons or felonies whatsoever. This position follows logically from the theory of English law that all offences are breaches of the king's peace. Indictments still conclude with a statement that the offence was committed "against the peace of our lord king, his crown and dignity." The Crown by pardon only remits the penalty for an attack upon itself. The prerogative is in modern times exercised by delegation, the Crown acting upon the representation of the secretary of state for the home depart. ment in Great Britain, or of the lord lieutenant in Ireland. The prerogative of the Crown is subject to some restrictions : (1) The committing of a subject of the realm to a prison out of the realm is by the Habeas Corpus Act a praemunire, unpardonable even by the king (31 Car. II. c. 2, § 12). (2) The king cannot pardon an offence in a matter of private rather than of public wrong, so as to prejudice the person injured by the offence. Thus a common nuisance cannot be pardoned while it remains unredressed, or so as to prevent an abatement of it. A fine or penalty imposed for the offence may, however, be remitted By an act of 1859 (22 Vict. c. 32) his majesty is enabled to remit wholly or in part any sum of money imposed upon conviction, and, if the offender has been imprisoned in default of payment, to extend to him the royal mercy. There are other statutes dealing with special offences, e.g. by the Remission of Penalties Act 1875 his majesty may remit any penalty imposed under 21 Geo. III. c. 49 (an act for preventing certain abuses and profanations on the Lord's Day called Sunday). (3) The king's pardon cannot be pleaded in bar of an impeachment. This principle, first asserted by a resolution of the House of Commons in the earl of Danby's case (May 5, 1679), forms one of the provisions of the Act of Settlement, 12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2. It is there enacted "that no pardon under the great seal of England shall be pleadable to an impeachment by the Commons in parliament," § 3This provision does not extend to abridging the prerogative after the impeachment has been heard and determined. Thus three of the rebel lords were pardoned after impeachment and attainder in 1715. (4) In the case of treason, murder or rape a pardon is ineffectual unless the offence be particularly specified therein (13 Rich. II. c. 1, § 2). Before the Bill of Rights, 1 WIL & M. c. 2, § 2, this statute seems to have been frequently evaded by a non obstante clause. But, since by the Bill of Rights no dispensation by non obstante is allowed, general words contrary to the statute of Richard II. would seem to be ineffectual. Pardon may be actual or constructive. Actual pardon is by warrant under the great seal, or under the sign-manual countersigned by a secretary of state (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, § 13). Constructive pardon is obtained by endurance of the punishment. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 32, § 3, the endurance of a punishment on conviction of a felony not capital has the same effect as a pardon under the great seal. This principle is reaffirmed in the Larceny Act 1861, § 109, and in the Malicious Injuries to Property Act 1861, § 67. Further, pardon may be free or conditional A conditional pardon most commonly occurs where an offender sentenced to death has his sentence commuted to penal servitude or any less punishment. The condition of his pardon is the endurance by him of the substituted punishment. The effect of pardon, whether actual or constructive, is to put the person pardoned in the position of an innocent man, so that he may have See further, on the ethical aspect, Montesquieu, Esprit des lois, bk. vi. ch. 21; Bentham, Principles of Penal Law, bk. vi. ch. 4. an action against any one thenceforth calling him traitor or | producing a picture satisfactory to himself, he contrived furtively to place it among those on which Velazquez had been working, felon. He cannot refuse to give evidence respecting the offence pardoned on the ground that his answer would tend to criminate immediately before an expected visit of King Philip IV. The performance was duly discovered and praised, and Pareja forthwith him. A pardon may be pleaded on arraignment in bar of an received his freedom, which, however, he continued to devote indictment (though not of an impeachment), or after verdict to his former employer's service. His extant works are not very in arrest of judgment. No doubt it would generally be advannumerous; the best known, the "Calling of St Matthew," now in tageous to plead it as early as possible. the Prado, Madrid, has considerable merit as regards technique, but does not reveal much originality, insight or devotional feeling. He died in 1670. It is obvious that, though the Crown is invested with the right to pardon, this does not prevent pardon being granted by the higher authority of an act of parliament. Acts of indemnity have frequently been passed, the effect of which is the same as pardon or remission by the Crown. Examples of acts of indemnity are two private acts passed in 1880 to relieve Lords Byron and Plunket from the disabilities and penalties to which they were liable for sitting and voting in the House of Peers without taking the oath. Civil rights are not divested by pardon. The person injured may have a right of action against the offender in spite of the pardon of the latter, if the right of action has once vested, for the Crown cannot affect private rights. In Scotland this civil right is specially preserved by various statutes. Thus 1593, c. 174, provides that, if any respite or remission happen to be granted before the party grieved be first satisfied, the same is to be null and of none avail. The assythment, or indemnification due to the heirs of the person murdered from the murderer, is due if the murderer has received pardon, though not if he has suffered the penalty of the law. The pardon transmitted by the secretary of state is applied by the supreme court, who grant the necessary orders to the magistrates in whose custody the convict is. ), Canadian politiPARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855cian, son of Simon Polycarpe Parent, merchant, was born in the village of Beauport, in the province of Quebec, on the 12th of September 1855. He was educated at Laval University, where he graduated in 1881. In the same year he was called to the bar of the province of Quebec. He married in 1877 Marie Louise Clara Gendron, of Beauport. In 1890 Parent was elected a member of the municipal council of Quebec, and served as mayor of the city from 1894 to 1906. From the year 1890 to 1905 he represented the county of Saint-Sauveur as a Liberal in the legislative assembly of his native province, and on the formation of the Marchand administration in 1897 he accepted the portfolio of minister of lands, forests and fisheries. After Marchand's death in September 1900 he was called by the lieutenant-governor to form a cabinet, and continued in office as prime minister until his retirement from public life in August 1905. Parent proved a capable administrator of provincial and municipal affairs. Under his administration the finances of the city of Quebec were improved, an electric car service was provided, public parks were opened, a system of electric light was established and the streets were well paved. In 1905 he became chairman of the Transcontinental railway of Canada. PARENTHESIS (from Gr. Tapevтiéval, put in alongside), the grammatical term denoting the insertion (and so also the signs for such insertion) of a word, phrase or sentence between other words or in another sentence, without interfering with the construction, and serving a qualifying, explanatory or supplementary purpose. In writing or printing such parenthetical words or sentences are marked off by commas, dashes, or, more usually, by square or semi-circular brackets. In the United States the president is empowered to pardon offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachments (U. S. Constitution, art. ii. § 2). The power of pardon is also vested in the executive authority of the different states, with or without the concurrence of the legislative authority, although in some states there are boards of pardon of which the governor is a member ex officio. Thus by the New York Code of Criminal Procedure the governor of the state of New York has power to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, except in the case of treason, where he can only suspend the execution of the sentence until the case can be reported to the legislature, with whom the power of pardon in this case rests. The usualTrieste by rail. Pop. (1900), 9962, mostly Italian. It is situated form of pardon in the United States is by deed under seal of the executive. PARDUBITZ (Czech, Pardubic), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 17,029, mostly Czech. The most interesting buildings are the old fortified château of the 16th century, with its Gothic chapel restored in 1880; the church of St Bartholomew, dating in its present form from 1538; the new town hall (1894); the Grünes Tor, also built in 1538; and the handsome new synagogue. Pardubitz has a tolerably active trade in grain and timber, and the horse-fairs attract numerous customers. PARÉ, AMBROISE (1510-1590), French surgeon, was born at Laval, in the province of Maine, and died at Paris in 1590. His professional career and services to his art are described in the article SURGERY. A collection of his works was published at Paris in 1575 and they were afterwards frequently reprinted. Several editions have appeared in German and Dutch, and among the English translations was that of Thomas Johnson (1665). See J. F. Malgaigne, Euvres completes (Paris, 1840); Le Paulmier, Ambroise Paré d'après de nouveaux documents découverts aux archives nationales et de papiers de famille (Paris, 1885); Stephen Paget, Ambroise Paré and his Times (London, 1897). PAREJA, JUAN DE (1606-1670), Spanish painter, was born a slave in the West Indies about 1606, and in early life passed into the service of Velazquez, who employed him in colour grinding and other menial work of the studio. By day he closely watched his master's methods, and by night stealthily practised with his brushes until he had attained considerable manipulative skill. The story goes that, having succeeded in PARENZO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 95 m. S. by W. of on the west coast of Istria, and is built on a peninsula nowhere readily catch the eye. Parenzo is the seat of the Provincial | time. The accepted derivation of the word is from the Tamil Diet of Istria, and is also an episcopal see. Parenzo (Lat. Parentium), conquered by the Romans in 178 B.C., was made a colony probably by Augustus after the battle of Actium, for its title in inscriptions is Colonia Julia and not, as it has often been given, Colonia Ulpia. It grew to be a place of some note with about 6000 inhabitants within its walls and 10,000 in its suburbs. The bishopric, founded in 524, gradually acquired ecclesiastical authority over a large number of abbeys and other foundations in the surrounding country. The city, which had long been under the influence of Venice, formally recognized Venetian supremacy in 1267, and as a Venetian town it was in 1354 attacked and plundered by Paganino Doria of Genoa. The bishoprics of Pola and Parenzo were united in 1827. See John Mason Neale, Notes on Dalmatia, Istria, &c. (London, 1861), with ground plan of cathedral; E. A. Freeman, Sketches from the Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice (London, 1881); and Neumann, Der Dom von Parenzo (Vienna, 1902). PARGA, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, and on the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), about 5000, of whom the majority are Greeks. Parga has a rock-built citadel and a harbour formed by a mole which the Venetians constructed in 1572. It exports citrons, wool, oak, bark and skins. Originally occupying the site of the ancient Toryne (or Palaco-Parga), a short distance to the west, Parga was removed to its present position after the Turkish invasion in the 15th century. Under Venetian protection, freely accepted in 1401, the inhabitants maintained their municipal independence and commercial prosperity down to the destruction of the Venetian republic in 1797, though on two occasions, in 1500 and 1560, their city was burned by the Turks. The attempts of Ali Pasha of Iannina to make himself master of the place were thwarted partly by the presence of a French garrison in the citadel and partly by the heroic attitude of the Pargiotes themselves, who were anxious to have their city incorporated with the Ionian Republic. To secure their purpose they in 1814 expelled the French garrison and accepted British protection; but the British Government in 1815 determined to go back to the convention of 1800 by which Parga was to be surrendered to Turkey, though no mosque was to be built or Mussulman to settle within its territory. Rather than subject themselves to the tyranny of Ali Pasha, the Pargiotes decided to forsake their country; and accordingly in 1819, having previously exhumed and burned the remains of their ancestors, they migrated to the Ionian Islands. The Turkish government was constrained to pay them £142,425 by way of compensation. PARGETTING (from O. Fr. pargeter or parjeler; par, all over, and jeter, to throw, i.e. " rough cast "; other derivations suggested have been from Lat. spargere, to sprinkle, and from paries, a wall, the last due to writing the parjet in the form pariel), a term applied to the decoration in relief of the plastering between the studwork on the outside of half-timber houses, or sometimes covering the whole wall. The devices were stamped on the wet plaster. This seems generally to have been done by sticking a number of pins in a board in certain lines or curves, and then pressing on the wet plaster in various directions, so as to form geometrical figures. Sometimes these devices are in relief, and in the time of Elizabeth represent figures, birds, foliages, &c.; fine examples are to be seen at Ipswich, Maidstone, Newark, &c. (See PLASTER-WORK.) The term is also applied to the lining of the inside of smoke flues to form an even surface for the passage of the smoke. PARIAH, a name long adopted in European usage for the 39 outcastes of India. Strictly speaking the Paraiyans are the agricultural labourer caste of the Tamil country in Madras, and are by no means the lowest of the low. The majority are ploughmen, formerly adscripti glebae, but some of them are weavers, and no less than 350 subdivisions have been distinguished. The name can be traced back to inscriptions of the 11th century, and the " Pariah poet," Tiruvalluvar, author of the famous Tamil poem, the Kurral, probably lived at about that parai, the large drum of which the Paraiyans are the hereditary beaters at festivals, &c. In 1901 the total number of Paraiyans in all India was 2 millions, almost confined to the south of Madras. In the Telugu country their place is taken by the Malas, in the Kanarese country by the Holeyas and in the Deccan by the Mahars. Some of their privileges and duties seem to show that they represent the original owners of the land, subjected by a conquering race. The Pariahs supplied a notable proportion of Clive's sepoys, and are still enlisted in the Madras sappers and miners. They have always acted as domestic servants to Europeans. That they are not deficient in intelligence is proved by the high position which some of them, when converted to Christianity, have occupied in the professions. In modern official usage the "outcastes" generally are termed Panchamas in Madras, and special efforts are made for their education. See Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages (pp. 540-554), and the Madras Census Reports for 1891 and 1901. PARIAH DOG, a dog of a domesticated breed that has reverted, in a greater or less degree, to a half-wild condition. Troops of such dogs are found in the towns and villages of Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa; and they probably interbreed with wolves, jackals and wild dogs. The Indian breed is near akin to the Australian dingo. PARIAN CHRONICLE (Chronicon or Marmor Parium), a marble tablet found in the island of Paros in 1627, now among the Arundel Marbles at Oxford. It originally embraced an outline of Greek history from the reign of Cecrops, legendary king of Athens, down to the archonship of Diognetus at Athens (264 B.C.). The Chronicle seems to have been set up by a private person, but, as the opening of the inscription has perished, we do not know the occasion or motives which prompted the step. The author of the Chronicle has given much attention to the festivals, and to poetry and music; thus he has recorded the dates of the establishment of festivals, of the introduction of various kinds of poetry, the births and deaths of the poets, and their victories in contests of poetical skill. On the other hand, important political and military events are often entirely omitted; thus the return of the Heraclidae, Lycurgus, the wars of Messene, Draco, Solon, Cleisthenes, Pericles, the Peloponnesian War and the Thirty Tyrants are not even mentioned. The years are reckoned backwards from the archonship of Diognetus, and the dates are further specified by the kings and archons of Athens. The reckoning by Olympiads is not employed. The Chronicle consists of 93 lines, written chiefly in the Attic dialect. The Parian Chronicle (first published by Selden in 1628) is printed by A. Bockh in the Corpus inscriptionum graecarum, vol. ii., No. 2374. and by C. W. Muller in the Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, vol i there are separate editions by J. Flach (1883) and F. Jacoby (1904). A New fragment was discovered in 1897, bringing the Chronicle down to the year 299 (ed. Crispi and Wilhelm in Mittheilungen des archaeologischen Instituts, athenische Abtheilung, vol. xxii., 1897). Ses also "Notes on the Text of the Parian Marble" and review of Jacoby's edition by J. A. R. Munro in Classical Review (March and October 1901 and June 1905). PARINI, GIUSEPPE (1729-1799), Italian poet, was born at Bosio in the Milanese, on the 22nd of May 1729. His parents, who possessed a small farm on the shore of Lake Pusiano, sert him to Milan, where he studied under the Barnabites in the Academy Arcimboldi, maintaining himself latterly by copying manuscripts. In 1752 he published at Lugano, under the pseudonym of Ripano Eupilino, a small volume of sciallo verse which secured his election to the Accademia dei Trasformati at Milan and to that of the Arcadi at Rome. His poem, Il Mattino, which was published in 1763, and which marked a distinct advance in Italian blank verse, consisted of ironical instructions to a young nobleman as to the best method of spending his mornings. It at once established Parini's popularity and influence, and two years later a continuation of the same theme was published under the title of Il Mezzogiorna The Austrian plenipotentiary, Count Firmian, interested himself in procuring the poet's advancement, appointing him. in the first place, editor of the Milan Gazette, and in 1769, in despite of the Jesuits, to a specially created chair of belles lettres in the Palatine School. On the French occupation of Milan he was appointed magistrate by Napoleon and Saliceti, but almost immediately retired to resume his literary work and to complete Il Vespro and La Notte (published after his death), which with the two other poems already mentioned compose what is collectively entitled Il Giorno. Among his other poems his rather artificial Odi, composed between 1757 and 1795, have appeared in various editions. He died on the 15th of August 1799. His works, edited by Reina, were published in 6 vols. 8vo (Milan, 1801-1804); and an excellent critical edition by G. Mazzoni appeared at Florence in 1897. PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS), in Greek legend, the son of Priam, king of Troy and Hecuba. Before he was born his mother dreamed that she was delivered of a firebrand. The dream was interpreted that her child would ruin his country, and when Paris was born he was exposed on Mt Ida. His life was saved by the herdsmen, and he grew up among them, distinguished for beauty and strength, till he was recognized and received by his parents. He was said to have been called Alexandros from his bravery in defending the herds against raids. When the strife arose at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis between Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, each claiming the apple that should belong to the most beautiful, Paris was selected as the judge. The three rivals unveiled their divine charms before a mortal judge on Mt Ida. Each tried to bribe the judge, Hera by promising power, Athena wisdom, Aphrodite the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris decided in favour of Aphrodite, and thus made Hera and Athena bitter enemies of his country (Homer, Iliad, xxiv. 25; Euripides, Troades, 925. Andromache, 284; Helena, 23). To gain the woman whom Aphrodite had promised, Paris set sail for Lacedaemon, deserting his old love Oenone, daughter of the river-god Cebren, who in vain warned him of the consequences. He was hospitably received by Menelaus, whose kindness he repaid by persuading his wife Helen to flee with him to Troy (Iliad, vi. 290). The siege of Troy by the united Greeks followed. Paris proved a lazy and backward fighter, though not wanting in actual courage when he could be roused to exert himself. Before the capture of the city he was mortally wounded by Philoctetes with an arrow (Sophocles, Philoctetes, 1426). He then bethought him of the slighted nymph Oenone, who he knew could heal the wound. He was carried into her presence, but she refused to save him. Afterwards, when she found he was dead, she committed suicide (Apollodorus iii. 12). The judgment of Paris became a favourite subject in Greek art. Paris is represented as a beautiful young man, beardless, wearing the pointed Phrygian cap, and often holding the apple in his hand. PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-1881), French savant, was born at Avenay (Marne) on the 25th of March 1800. He published in 1824 an Apologie pour l'école romantique, and took an active part in Parisian journalism. His appointment, in 1828, to the department of manuscripts in the Bibliothèque royale left him leisure to pursue his studies in medieval French literature. Paulin Paris lived before minute methods of research had been generally applied to modern literature, and his chief merit is that by his numerous editions of early French poems he continued the work begun by Dominique Méon in arousing general interest in the then little-known epics of chivalry. Admitted to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in 1837, he was shortly afterwards appointed on the commission entrusted with the continuation of the Histoire littéraire de la France. In 1853 a chair of medieval literature was founded at the Collège de France, and Paulin Paris became the first occupant. He retired in 1872 with the title of honorary professor, and was promoted officer of the Legion of Honour in the next year. He died on the 13th of February 1881 in Paris. His works include: Manuscrits français de la bibliothèque du roi vols., 1836-1848); Li Romans di Garin le Loherain, précédé d'un examen des romans carlovingiens (1883-1885); Li Romans de Berte aux grans piés (1832); Le Romancero français, histoire de quelques | | anciens trouvères et choix de leurs chansons (1833); an edition of the Grandes chroniques de France (1836-1840): La Chanson d'Antioche (1848); Les Aventures de maître Renart et d'Ysengrin (1861) and Les Romans de la table ronde (1868-1877), both put into modern French. His son Gaston Paris contributed a biographical notice to vol. xxix. of the Histoire littéraire. PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903), French scholar, son of Paulin Paris, was born at Avenay (Marne) on the 9th of August 1839. In his childhood Gaston Paris learned to appreciate the Old French romances as poems and stories, and this early impulse to the study of Romance literature was placed on a solid basis by courses of study at Bonn (1856-1857) under Friedrich Diez, at Göttingen (1857-1858) and finally at the Ecole des Chartes (1858-1861). His first important work was an Étude sur le rôle de l'accent latin dans la langue française (1862). The subject was developed later in his Lettre M. Léon Gautier sur la versification latine rhythmique (1866). Gaston Paris maintained that French versification was a natural development of popular Latin methods which depended on accent rather than quantity, and were as widely different from classical rules as the Low Latin was from the classical idiom. For his degree as doctor he presented a thesis on the Histoire poétique de Charlemagne (1865). He succeeded his father as professor of medieval French literature at the Collège de France in 1872, in 1876 he was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and in 1896 to the French Academy; and in 1895 he was appointed director of the Collège de France. Gaston Paris won a European reputation as a Romance scholar. He had learnt German methods of exact research, but besides being an accurate philologist he was a literary critic of great acumen and breadth of view, and brought a singularly clear mind to bear on his favourite study of medieval French literature. His Vie de Saint-Alexis (1872) broke new ground and provided a model for future editors of medieval texts. It included the original text and the variations of it dating from the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. Gaston Paris contributed largely to the Histoire littéraire de la France, and with Paul Meyer published Romania, a journal devoted to the study of Romance literature. Among his other numerous works may be mentioned Les Plus anciens monuments de la langue française (1875); a Manuel d'ancien Français (1888); an edition of the Mystère de la passion d'Arnoul Greban (1878), in collaboration with M. Gaston Raynaud; Deux rédactions du roman des sept sages de Rome (1876), a translation of the Grammaire des langues romanes (1874-1878) of Friedrich Diez, in collaboration with MM. Brachet and Morel Fatio. Among his works of a more popular nature are La Poésie du moyen dge (1885 and 1895); Penseurs et poètes (1897); Poèmes et légendes du moyen êge (1900); François Villon (1901), an admirable monograph contributed to the "Grands Ecrivains Français" series; Légendes du moyen âge (1903). His excellent summary of medieval French literature forms a volume of the Temple Primers. Gaston Paris endeared himself to a wide circle of scholars outside his own country by his unfailing urbanity and generosity. In France itself he trained at the Ecole des Chartes and the Collège de France a band of disciples who continued the traditions of exact research that he established Among them were. Léopold Pannier, Marius Sepet, the author of Le Drame chrétien au moyen âge (1878) and of the Origines catholiques du théâtre moderne (1901); Charles Joret, Alfred Morel-Fatio; Gaston Raynaud, who is responsible for various volumes of the excellent editions published by the Société des anciens textes français, Arsène Darmesteter and others. Gaston Paris died in Paris on the 6th of March 1903. See "Hommage à Gaston Paris" (1903), the opening lecture of his 'successor, Joseph Bédier, in the chair of medieval literature at the Collège de France; A. Thomas, Essais de philologie française (1897); W. P Ker, in the Fortnightly Review (July, 1904); M. Croiset, Notice sur Gaston Paris (1904). J Bédier et M Roques, Bibliographie des travaux de Gaston Paris (1904). PARIS, FRANÇOIS DE (1690-1727), French theologian, was born in Paris on the 3rd of June 1690. He zealously opposed the bull Unigenitus (1713), which condemned P. Quesnel's |