though somewhat troublesome intendancy of Rouen. The family accordingly removed to the Norman capital, though Gilberte Pascal shortly after, on her marriage, returned to Clermont. At Rouen they became acquainted with Corneille, and Blaise pursued his studies with such vehemence that he already showed signs of an injured constitution. Nothing, however, of importance happened till the year 1646. Then Pascal the elder was confined to the house by the consequences of an accident on the ice, and was visited by certain gentlemen of the neighbourhood who had come under the influence of Saint-Cyran and the Jansenists. It does not appear that up to this time the Pascal family had been contemners of religion, but they now eagerly embraced the creed, or at least the attitude of Jansenism, and Pascal himself showed his zeal by informing against the supposed unorthodoxy of a Capuchin, the Père Saint-Ange. be passed over, though they are in part apocryphal. It seems that Pascal in driving to Neuilly was run away with by the horses, and would have been plunged in the river but that the traces fortunately broke. To this, which seems authentic, is usually added the tradition (due to the abbé Boileau) that afterwards he used at times to see an imaginary precipice by his bedside, or at the foot of the chair on which he was sitting. Further, from the 23rd of November 1654 dates the singular document usually known as "Pascal's amulet," a parchment slip which he wore constantly about him, and which bears the date followed by some lines of incoherent and strongly mystical devotion. It must be noted that, though he lived much at Port Royal, and partly at least observed its rule, he never actually became one of its famous solitaries. But for what it did for him (and for a time his health as well as his peace of mind seems to have been improved) he very soon paid an ample and remarkable return. At the end of 1655 Arnauld, the chief light of Port Royal, was condemned by the Sorbonne for heretical doctrine, and it was thought important by the Jansenist and Port Royal Arnauld would have undertaken the task himself, but his wiser friends knew that his style was anything but popular, and overruled him. It is said that he personally suggested to Pascal to try his hand, and that the first of the famous Provinciales (Provincial Letters, properly Lettres écrites par Louis de Montalte à un provincial de ses amis) was written in a few days, or, less probably, in a day. It was printed without the real author's name on the 23rd of January 1656, and, being immensely popular, and successful, was followed by others to the number of eighteen. Shortly after the appearance of the Provinciales, on the 24th of May 1656, occurred the miracle of the Holy Thorn, a fragment of the crown of Christ preserved at Port Royal, which cured the little Marguerite Perier of a fistula lacrymalis. The Jesuits were much mortified by this Jansenist miracle, which, as it was officially recognized, they could not openly deny. Pascal and his friends rejoiced in proportion. The details of his later years after this incident are somewhat scanty. For years before his death we hear only of acts of charity and of, as it seems to modern ideas, extravagant asceticism. Thus Mme Perier tells us that he disliked to see her caress her children, and would not allow the beauty of any woman to be talked of in his presence. What may be called his last illness began as early as 1658, and as the disease progressed it was attended with more and more pain, chiefly in the head. In June 1662, having given up his own house to a poor family who were suffering from small-pox, he went to his sister's house to be nursed, and never afterwards left it. His state was, it seems, mistaken by his physicians, so much so that the offices of the Church were long put off. He was able, however, to receive the Eucharist, and soon afterwards died in convulsions on the 19th of August. A post mortem examination was held, which showed not only grave derangement in the stomach and other organs, but a serious lesion of the brain. His bodily health was at this time very far from satisfactory, and he appears to have suffered, not merely from acute dyspepsia, but from a kind of paralysis. He was, however, indefatigable in his mathematical work. In 1647 he published his Nouvelles expériences sur le vide, and in the next year the famous experi-party that steps should be taken to disabuse the popular mind. ment with the barometer on the Puy de Dome was carried out for him by his brother-in-law Perier, and repeated on a smaller scale by himself at Paris, to which place by the end of 1647 he and his sister Jacqueline had removed, to be followed shortly by their father. In a letter of Jacqueline's, dated the 27th of September, an account of a visit paid by Descartes to Pascal is given, which, like the other information on the relations of the two, give strong suspicion of mutual jealousy. Descartes, however, gave Pascal the very sensible advice to stay in bed as long as he could (it may be remembered that the philosopher himself never got up till eleven) and to take plenty of beef-tea. As early as May 1648 Jacqueline Pascal was strongly drawn to Port Royal, and her brother frequently accompanied her to its church. She desired indeed to join the convent, but her father, who returned to Paris with the dignity of counsellor of state, disapproved of the plan, and took both brother and sister to Clermont, where Pascal remained for the greater part of two years. E. Fléchier, in his account of the Grands Jours at Clermont many years after, speaks of a "belle savante in whose company Pascal had frequently been-a trivial mention on which, as on many other trivial points of scantily known lives, the most childish structures of comment and conjecture have been based. It is sufficient to say that at this time, despite the Rouen "conversion," there is no evidence to show that Pascal was in any way a recluse, an ascetic, or in short anything but a young man of great intellectual promise and performance, not indifferent to society, but of weak health. He, his sister and their father returned to Paris in the late autumn of 1650, and in September of the next year Etienne Pascal died. Almost immediately afterwards Jacqueline fulfilled her purpose of joining Port Royal-a proceeding which led to some soreness, finally healed, between herself and her brother and sister as to the disposal of her property. It has sometimes been supposed that Pascal, from 1651 or earlier to the famous accident of 1654, lived a dissipated, extravagant, worldly, luxurious (though admittedly not vicious) life with his friend the duc de Roannez and others. His Discours sur les passions de l'amour, a striking and characteristic piece, not very long since discovered and printed, has also been assigned to this period, and has been supposed to indicate a hopeless passion for Charlotte de Roannez, the duke's sister. But this is sheer romancing. The extant letters of Pascal to the lady show no trace of any affection (stronger than friendship) between them. It is, however, certain that in the autumn of 1654 Pascal's second "conversion " took place, and that it was lasting. He betook himself at first to Port Royal, and began to live a recluse and austere life there. Mme Perier simply says that Jacqueline persuaded him to abandon the world. Jacqueline represents the retirement as the final result of a long course of dissatisfaction with mundane life. But there are certain anecdotic embellishments of the act which are too famous to Eight years after Pascal's death appeared what purported to be his Pensées, and a preface by his nephew Perier gave the world to understand that these were fragments of a great projected apology for Christianity which the author had, in conversation with his friends, planned out years before. The editing of the book was peculiar. It was submitted to a committee of influential Jansenists, with the duc de Roannez at their head, and, in addition, it bore the imprimatur of numerous unofficial approvers who testified to its orthodoxy. It does not appear that there was much suspicion of the garbling which had been practised-garbling not unusual at the time, and excused in this case by the fact of a lull in the troubles of Port Royal and a great desire on the part of its friends to do nothing to disturb that lull. But as a matter of fact no more entirely factitious book ever issued from the press. The fragments which it professed to give were in themselves confused and incoherent enough, nor is it easy to believe that they all formed No such positive statements as these are, however, possible as to the substance of the Pensées and the attitude of their author. Hitherto the widest differences have been manifested in the estimate of Pascal's opinions on the main questions of philosophy, theology and human conduct. He has been represented as a determined apologist of intellectual orthodoxy animated by an almost fanatical "hatred of reason," " and possessed with a purpose to overthrow the appeal to reason; as a sceptic and pessimist of a far deeper dye than Montaigne, part of any such single and coherent design as that referred to | approaching levity in its special sense, of the manner in which above. But the editors omitted, altered, added, separated, these subjects are attacked is a triumph of literary art of which combined and so forth entirely at their pleasure, actually no familiarity dims the splendour, and which no lapse of time making some changes which seem to have been thought improve- can ever impair. Nor perhaps is this literary art really less ments of style. This rifacimento remained the standard text evident in the Pensées, though it is less clearly displayed, owing with a few unimportant additions for nearly two centuries, to the fragmentary or rather chaotic condition of the work, except that, by a truly comic revolution of public taste, and partly also to the nature of the subject. The vividness Condorcet in 1776 published, after study of the original, which and distinction of Pascal's phrase, his singular faculty of inserting remained accessible in manuscript, another garbling, con- without any loss of dignity in the gravest and most impassioned ducted this time in the interests of unorthodoxy. It was meditation what may be almost called quips of thought and not till 1842 that Victor Cousin drew attention to the absolutely diction, the intense earnestness of meaning weighting but not untrustworthy condition of the text, nor till 1844 that confusing the style, all appear here. A. P. Faugère edited that text from the MS. in something like a condition of purity, though, as subsequent editions have shown, not with absolute fidelity. But even in its spurious condition the book had been recognized as remarkable and almost unique. Its contents, as was to be expected, are of a very chaotic character-of a character so chaotic indeed that the reader is almost at the mercy of the arrangement, perforce an arbitrary arrangement, of the editors. But the subjects dealt with concern more or less all the great problems of thought on what may be called the theological side of metaphysics-anxious chiefly to show how any positive decision on matters the sufficiency of reason, the trustworthiness of experience, the admissibility of revelation, free will, foreknowledge, and the rest. The peculiarly disjointed and fragmentary condition of the sentiments expressed by Pascal aggravates the appearance of universal doubt which is present in the Pensées, just as the completely unfinished condition of the work, from the literary point of view, constantly causes slighter or graver doubts as to the actual meaning which the author wished to express. Accordingly the Pensées have always been a favourite exploring ground, not to say a favourite field of battle, to persons who take an interest in their problems. Speaking generally, their tendency is towards the combating of scepticism by a deeper scepticism, or, as Pascal himself calls it, Pyrrhonism, which occasionally goes the length of denying the possibility of any natural theology. Pascal explains all the contradictions and difficulties of human life and thought by the doctrine of the Fall, and relies on faith and revelation alone to justify each other. Excluding here his scientific attainments (see below), Pascal presents himself for comment in two different lights, the second of which is, if the expression be permitted, a composite one. The first exhibits him as a man of letters, the second as a philosopher, a theologian, and simply a man, for in no one is the colour of the theology and the philosophy more distinctly personal. Yet his character as a man is not very distinct. The accounts of his sister and niece have the defect of all hagiology; they are obviously written rather with a view to the ideas and the wishes of the writers than with a view to the actual and absolute personality of the subject. Except from these interesting but somewhat tainted sources, we know little or nothing about him. Hence conjecture, or at least inference, must always enter largely into any estimate of Pascal, except a purely literary one. On that side, fortunately, there is no possibility of doubt or difficulty to any competent inquirer. The Provincial Letters are the first example of French prose which is at once considerable in bulk, varied and important in matter, perfectly finished in form. They owe not a little to Descartes, for Pascal's indebtedness to his predecessor is unquestionable from the literary side, whatever may be the case with the scientific. But Descartes had had neither the opportunity, nor the desire, nor probably the power, to write anything of the literary importance of the Provinciales. The first example of polite controversial irony since Lucian, the Provinciales have continued to be the best example of it during more than two centuries in which the style has been sedulously practised, and in which they have furnished a model to generation after generation. The unfailing freshness and charm of the contrast between the importance, the gravity, in some cases the dry and abstruse nature, of their subjects, and the lightness, sometimes almost beyond the range of experience is impossible; as a nervous believer clinging to conclusions which his clearer and better sense showed to be indefensible; as an almost ferocious ascetic and paradoxer affecting the credo quia impossibile in intellectual matters and the odi quia amabile in matters moral and sensuous; as a wanderer in the regions of doubt and belief, alternately bringing a vast though vague power of thought and an unequalled power of expression to the expression of ideas incompatible and irreconcilable. An unbiased study of the scanty facts of his history, and of the tolerably abundant but scattered and chaotic facts of his literary production, ought to enable any one to steer clear of these exaggerations, while admitting at the same time that it is impossible to give a complete and final account of his attitude towards the riddles of this world and others. He certainly was no mere advocate of orthodoxy; he as certainly was no mere victim of terror at scepticism; least of all was he a freethinker in disguise. He appears, as far as can be judged from the fragments of his Pensées, to have seized firmly and fully the central idea of the difference between reason and religion. Where the difficulty rises respecting him is that most thinkers since his day, who have seen this difference with equal clearness, have advanced from it to the negative side, while he advanced to the positive. In other words, most men since his day who have not been contented with a mere concordat, have let religion go and contented themselves with reason. Pascal, equally discontented with the concordat, held fast to religion and continued to fight out the questions of difference with reason. Surveying these positions, we shall not be astonished to find much that is surprising and some things that are contradictory in Pascal's utterances on "les grands sujets." The influence exercised on him by Montaigne is the one fact regarding him which has not been and can hardly be exaggerated, and his well-known Entretion with Sacy on the subject (the restoration of which to its proper form is one of the most valuable results of modern criticism) leaves no doubt possible as to the source of his "Pyrrhonian" method. But it is impossible for anyone who takes Pascal's Pensées simply as he finds them in connexion with the facts of Pascal's history to question his theological orthodoxy, understanding by theological orthodoxy the acceptance of revelation and dogma; it is equally impossible for any one in the same condition to declare him absolutely content with dogma and revelation. It is of the essence of an active mind like Pascal's to explore and state all the arguments which make for or make against the conclusion it is investigating. To sum up, the Pensées are excursions into the great unknown made with a full acknowledgment of the greatness of that unknown. From the point of view that belief and knowledge, based on experience or reasoning, are separate domains with an unexplored sea between and round them, Pascal is perfectly comprehensible, and he need not be taken as a deserter from | one region to the other. To those who hold that all intellectual exercise outside the sphere of religion is impious or that all intellectual exercise inside that sphere is futile, he must remain an enigma. There are few writers who are more in need than Pascal of being fully and competently edited. The chief nominally complete edition at present in existence is that of Bossut (1779, 5 vols., and since reprinted), which not only appeared before any attempt had been made to restore the true text of the Pensées, but is in other respects quite inadequate. The edition of Lahure, 1858, is not much better, though the Pensées appear in their more genuine form. An edition promised for the excellent collection of Les Grands écrivains de la France by A. P. Faugère has been executed as far as the Pensées go by Léon Brunschvig (3 vols., 1904), who has also issued a onevolume edition. The Euvres complètes appeared in three volumes (Paris, 1889). Meanwhile, with the exception of the Provinciales (of which there are numerous editions, no one much to be preferred to any other, for the text is undisputed and the book itself contains almost all the exegesis of its own contents necessary), Pascal can be read only at a disadvantage. There are five chief editions of the true Pensées earlier than Brunschvig's: that of Faugère (1844), the editio princeps; that of Havet (1852, 1867 and 1881), on the whole the best; that of Victor Rochet (1873), good, but arranged and edited with the deliberate intention of making Pascal first of all an orthodox apologist; that of Molinier (1877-1879), a carefully edited and interesting text, the important corrections of which have been introduced into Havet's last edition and that of G. Michelant (Freiburg, 1896). Unfortunately, none of these can be said to be exclusively satisfactory. The minor works must chiefly be sought in Bossut or reprints of him. Works on Pascal are innumerable: Sainte-Beuve's Port Royal, Cousin's writings on Pascal and his Jacqueline Pascal, and the essays of the editors of the Pensées just mentioned are the most noteworthy. Principal Tulloch contributed a useful little monograph to the series of Foreign Classics for English Readers (Edinburgh and London, 1878). Recent handlings are, in French, E. Boutroux's Pascal (Paris, 1903) and, in English, an article in the Quarterly Review (No. 407) for April 1906. (G. SA.) Pascal as Natural Philosopher and Mathematician.-Great as is Pascal's reputation as a philosopher and man of letters, it may be fairly questioned whether his claim to be remembered by posterity as a mathematician and physicist is not even greater. In his two former capacities all will admire the form of his work, while some will question the value of his results; but in his two latter capacities no one will dispute either. He was a great mathematician in an age which produced Descartes, Fermat, Huygens, Wallis and Roberval. There are wonderful stories on record of his precocity in mathematical learning, which is sufficiently established by the well-attested fact that he had completed before he was sixteen years of age a work on the conic sections, in which he had laid down a series of pro- | positions, discovered by himself, of such importance that they may be said to form the foundations of the modern treatment of that subject. Owing partly to the youth of the author, partly to the difficulty in publishing scientific works in those days, and partly no doubt to the continual struggle on his part to devote his mind to what appeared to his conscience more important labour, this work (like many others by the same master hand) was never published. We know something of what it contained from a report by Leibnitz, who had seen it in Paris, and from a résumé of its results published in 1640 by Pascal himself, under the title Essai pour les coniques. The method which he followed was that introduced by his contemporary Girard Desargues, viz. the transformation of geometrical figures by conical or optical projection. In this way he established the famous theorem that the intersections of the three pairs of opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic are collinear. This proposition, which he called the mystic hexagram, he made the keystone of his theory; from it alone he deduced more than 400 corollaries, embracing, according to his own account, the conics of Apollonius, and other results innumerable. quadrature of the cycloid, and proposed and solved a variety of others relating to the centre of gravity of the curve and its segments, and to the volume and centre of gravity of solids of revolution generated in various ways by means of it. He published a number of these theorems without demonstration as a challenge to contemporary mathematicians. Solutions were furnished by Wallis, Huygens, Wren and others; and Pascal published his own in the form of letters from Amos Dettonville (his assumed name as challenger) to Pierre de Carcavy. There has been some discussion as to the fairness of the treatment accorded by Pascal to his rivals, but no question of the fact that his initiative led to a great extension of our knowledge of the properties of the cycloid, and indirectly hastened the progress of the differential calculus. In yet another branch of pure mathematics Pascal ranks as a founder. The mathematical theory of probability and the allied theory of the combinatorial analysis were in effect created by the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat, concerning certain questions as to the division of stakes in games of chance, which had been propounded to the former by the gaming philosopher De Méré. A complete account of this interesting correspondence would surpass our present limits; but the reader may be referred to Todhunter's History of the Theory of Probability (Cambridge and London, 1865), pp. 7-21. It appears that Pascal contemplated publishing a treatise De aleae geometria; but all that actually appeared was a fragment on the arithmetical triangle (Traité du triangle arithmétique, Properties of the Figurate Numbers "), printed in 1654, but not published till 1665, after his death. Pascal's work as a natural philosopher was not less remarkable than his discoveries in pure mathematics. His experiments and his treatise (written before 1651, published 1663) on the equilibrium of fluids entitle him to rank with Galileo and Stevinus as one of the founders of the science of hydrodynamics. The idea of the pressure of the air and the invention of the instrument for measuring it were both new when he made his famous experiment, showing that the height of the mercury column in a barometer decreases when it is carried upwards through the atmosphere. This experiment was made by himself in a tower at Paris, and was carried out en a grand scale under his instructions by his brother-in-law Florin Périer on the Puy de Dôme in Auvergne. Its success greatly helped to break down the old prejudices, and to bring home to the minds of ordinary men the truth of the new ideas propounded by Galileo and Torricelli. Whether we look at his pure mathematical or at his physical researches we receive the same impression of Pascal; we see the strongest marks of a great original genius creating new ideas, and seizing upon, mastering, and pursuing farther everything that was fresh and unfamiliar in his time. We can still point to much in exact science that is absolutely his; and we can indicate infinitely more which is due to his inspiration. (G. CH.) PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-1661), sister of Blaise Pascal, was born at Clermont-Ferrand, France, on the 4th of October 1625. She was a genuine infant prodigy, composing verses when only eight years, and a five-act comedy at eleven. In 1646 the influence of her brother converted her to Jansenism. In 1652, she took the veil, despite the strong opposition of her brother, and subsequently was largely instrumental in the latter's own final conversion. She vehemently opposed the attempt to compel the assent of the nuns to the Papal bulls condemning Jansenism, but was at last compelled to yield her own. This blow, however, hastened her death, which occurred at Paris on the 4th of October 1661. PASCHAL (Paschalis), the name of two popes, and one Pascal also distinguished himself by his skill in the infinitesimal | anti-pope. calculus, then in the embryonic form of Cavalieri's method of indivisibles. The cycloid was a famous curve in those days; it had been discussed by Galileo, Descartes, Fermat, Roberval and Torricelli, who had in turn exhausted their skill upon it. Pascal solved the hitherto refractory problem of the general PASCHAL I., pope from 817 to 824, a native of Rome, was raised to the pontificate by the acclamation of the clergy, shortly after the death of Stephen IV., and before the sanction of the emperor (Louis the Pious) had been obtained-a circumstance for which it was one of his first cares to apologize. His relations with the imperial house, however, never became | 1877); W. Schum, Die Politik Paps! Paschals II. gegen Kaiser cordial; and he was also unsuccessful in winning the sympathy and Paschalis II. (Essen, 1885); C. Gernandt, Die erste Romfahrt Heinrich V. im Jahre 1112 (Erfurt, 1877); I. Röskens, Heinrich V. of the Roman nobles. He died in Rome while the imperial Heinrich V. (Heidelberg, 1890); G. Peiser, Der deutsche Investitur commissioners were investigating the circumstances under streit unter Kaiser Heinrich V. bis zu dem päpstlichen Privileg vom which two important Roman personages had been seized at 3 April 1111 (Berlin, 1883); and B. Monod, Essai sur les rapports the Lateran, blinded and afterwards beheaded; Paschal had de Pascal II. avec Philippe I. (Paris, 1907). There is an exhaustive shielded the murderers but denied all personal complicity in bibliography with an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in HerzogHauck, Realencyklopädie (3rd ed., 1904). their crime. The Roman people refused him the honour of burial within the church of St Peter, but he now holds a place in the Roman calendar (May 16). The church of St Cecilia in Trastevere was restored and St Maria in Dominica rebuilt by him; he also built the church of St Prassede. The successor of Paschal I. was Eugenius II. (L. D.*) PASCHAL II. (Ranieri), pope from the 13th of August 1099 to the 21st of January 1118, was a native of Bieda, near Viterbo, and a monk of the Cluniac order. He was created cardinalpriest of S. Clemente by Gregory VII. about 1076, and was consecrated pope in succession to Urban II. on the 14th of August 1099. In the long struggle with the emperors over investiture, he zealously carried on the Hildebrandine policy, but with only partial success. In 1104 Paschal succeeded in instigating the emperor's second son to rebel against his father, but soon found Henry V. even more persistent in maintaining the right of investiture than Henry IV. had been. The imperial Diet at Mainz invited (Jan. 1106) Paschal to visit Germany and settle the trouble, but the pope in the Council of Guastalla (Oct. 1106) simply renewed the prohibition of investiture. In the same year he brought to an end the investiture struggle in England, in which Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, had been engaged with King Henry I., by retaining himself exclusive right to invest with the ring and crozier, but recognizing the royal nomination to vacate benefices and oath of fealty for temporal domains. He went to France at the close of 1106 to seek the mediation of King Philip and Prince Louis in the imperial struggle, but, his negotiations remaining without result, he returned to Italy in September 1107. When Henry V. advanced with an army into Italy in order to be crowned, the pope agreed to a compact (Feb. 1111), by the terms of which the Church should surrender all the possessions and royalties it had received of the empire and kingdom of Italy since the days of Charlemagne, while Henry on his side should renounce lay investiture. Preparations were made for the coronation on the 12th of February 1111, but the Romans rose in revolt against the compact, and Henry retired taking with him pope and curia. After sixty-one days of harsh imprisonment, Paschal yielded and guaranteed investiture to the emperor. Henry was then crowned in St Peter's on the 13th of April, and after exacting a promise that no revenge would be taken for what had passed withdrew beyond the Alps. The Hildebrandine party was aroused to action, however; a Lateran council of March 1112 declared null and void the concessions extorted by violence; a council held at Vienna in October actually excommunicated the emperor, and Paschal sanctioned the proceeding. Towards the end of the pontificate trouble began anew in England, Paschal complaining (1115) that councils were held and bishops translated without his authorization, and threatening Henry I. with excommunication. On the death of the countess Matilda, who had bequeathed all her territories to the Church (1115), the emperor at once laid claim to them as imperial fiefs and forced the pope to flee from Rome. Paschal returned after the emperor's withdrawal at the beginning of 1118, but died within a few days on the 21st of January 1118. His successor was Gelasius II. The principal sources for the life of Paschal II. are his Letters in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Epistolae, vols. 3, 6, 7. 13, 17, 2023, 25, and the Vila by Petrus Pisanus in the Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne (Paris, 1892). Important bulls are in J. A. G. von PflugkHarttung, Die Bullen der Päpste bis zum Ende des zwölften Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1901), and a valuable digest in Jaffé-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. roman. (1885-1888). See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocens III (Bonn, 1893); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. v. (2nd ed., 1873-1890); E. Franz, Papst Paschalis II. (Breslau, (C. H. HA.) successor of Victor IV. on the 22nd of April 1164. He was an PASCHAL III., anti-pope from 1164 to 1168, was elected the aged aristocrat, Guido of Crema. Recognized at once by the emperor Frederick I. he soon lost the support of Burgundy, but the emperor crushed opposition in Germany, and gained the cooperation of Henry II. of England. Supported by the victorious imperial army, Paschal was enthroned at St Peter's on the 22nd of July 1167, and Pope Alexander III., became a fugitive. Sudden imperial reverses, however, made Paschal glad in the Tiber, where he died on the 20th of September 1168. He was end to hold so much as the quarter on the right bank of the succeeded by the anti-pope Callixtus III. See A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, Bd. IV. (Leipzig, 1903, 259-276); H. Böhmer in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, Bd. XIV., 724 seq.; and Lobkowtiz, Statistik der Päpste (Freiburg, i. B. 1905). (W. W. R.) PASCHAL CHRONICLE (Chronicum Paschale, also Chronicum Alexandrinum or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Siculi), so called from being based upon the Easter canon, an outline of chronology from Adam down to A.D. 629, accompanied by numerous historical and theological notes. The work, which is imperfect at the beginning and end (breaking off in the year 627), is preceded by an introduction on the Christian methods of reckoning time and the Easter cycle. It was written during the reign of Heraclius (610-641), and is generally attributed to an unknown Byzantine cleric and friend of the patriarch Sergius, who is specially alluded to as responsible for the introduction of certain ritual innovations. The so-called Byzantine or Roman era (which continued in use in the Greek Church until its liberation from Turkish rule) was adopted in the Chronicum for the first time as the foundation of chronology, in accordance with which the date of the creation is given as the 21st of March, 5507. The author is merely a compiler from earlier works, except in the history of the last thirty years, which has the value of a contemporary record. The chief authorities used were: Julius Sextus Africanus (3rd century); the consular Fasti; the Chronicle and Church History of Eusebius; John Malalas; the Acta martyrum; the treatise of Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia (the old Salamis) in Cyprus A. 4th century), on Weights and Measures. Editions: L. Dindorf (1832) in Corpus scriptorum hist. byzantinae, with Du Cange's preface and commentary: J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeco, xcu (1895); H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische see also C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte Chronographie, ii. 1 (1885); J. van der Hagen, Observationes in Heraclii imperatoris methodum paschalem (1736, but still considered indispensable); E. Schwarz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopušie, iii., pt. 2 (1899); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). PAS-DE-CALAIS, a maritime department of northern France, formed in 1790 of nearly the whole of Artois and the northern maritime portion of Picardy including Boulonnais, Calaisis, Ardrésis, and the districts of Langle and Bredenarde, and bounded N. by the Straits of Dover (" Pas de Calais "), E. by the department of Nord, S. by that of Somme, and W. by the English Channel. Pop. (1906), 1,012,466; Area 2606 sq. m. Except in the neighbourhood of Boulogne-sur-Mer with its côtes de fer or "iron coasts," the seaboard of the department which measures 65 m., consists of dunes. From the mouth of the Aa (the limit towards Nord) it trends west-south-west to Gris Nez, the point of France nearest to England; in this section lie the port of Calais, Cape Blanc Nez, rising 440 ft. above the sandy shores, and the port of Wissant (Wishant). The seaside resorts include Boulogne, Berck-sur-Mer, ParisPlage, Wimereux, &c. Beyond Griz Nez the direction is due south; in this section are the small port of Ambleteuse, Boulogne at the mouth of the Liane, and the two bays formed by the estuaries of the Canche and the Authie (the limit towards | Somme). The highest point in the department (700 ft.) is in the west, between Boulogne and St Omer. From the uplands in which it is situated the Lys and Scarpe flow east to the Scheldt, the Aa north to the German Ocean, and the Slack, Wimereux and Liane to the Channel. Farther south are the valleys of the Canche and the Authie, running E.S.E. and W.N.W., and thus parallel with the Somme. Vast plains, open and monotonous, but extremely fertile and well cultivated, occupy most of the department. To the north of the hills running between St Omer and Boulogne, to the south of Gravelines and the south-east of Calais, lies the district of the Wattergands, fens now drained by means of canals and dikes, and turned into highly productive land. The climate is free from extremes of heat and cold, but damp and changeable. At Arras the mean annual temperature is 47°; on the coast it is higher. The rainfall varies from 24 to 32 in., though at Cape Gris Nez the latter figure is much exceeded. Cereals are largely grown and give good yields to the acre; the other principal crops are potatoes, sugar-beet, forage, oil-plants and tobacco. Market gardening flourishes in the Wattergands. The rearing of livestock and poultry is actively carried on, and the horses of the Boulonnais are specially esteemed. The department is the chief in France for the production of coal, its principal coal-basin, which is a continuation of that of Valenciennes, centring round Béthune. The manufacture of beetroot-sugar, oil and alcohol distilling, iron-working, dyeing, brewing, paper-making, and various branches of the textile manufacture, are foremost among the industries of the department. Boulogne, Calais and Etaples fit out a considerable number of vessels for the cod, herring and mackerel fisheries. Calais and Boulogne are important ports of passenger-transit for England; and Boulogne also carries on a large export trade in the products of the department. The canal system comprises part of the Aa, the Lys, the Scarpe, the Deûle (a tributary of the Lys passing by Lille), the Lawe (a tributary of the Lys passing by Béthune), and the Sensée (an affluent of the Scheldt), as well as the canals of Aire to Bauvin, Neuffossé, Calais, Calais to Ardres, &c., and in this way a line of communication is formed from the Scheldt to the sea by Béthune, St Omer and Calais, with branches to Gravelines and Dunkirk. The department is served by the Northern railway. Pas-de-Calais forms the diocese of Arras (archbishopric of Cambrai), belongs to the district of the I. army corps, the educational division (académie) of Lille and the circumscription of the appeal court of Douai. There are six arrondissements (Arras, Béthune, Boulogne, Montreuil-sur-Mer, St Omer and St Pol-sur-Ternoise). The more noteworthy places are Arras, the capital, Boulogne, Calais, St Omer, Béthune, Lens, Montreuil-sur-Mer, Bruay, Berck, Etaples and Aire-sur-la-Lys, which are noticed separately. Besides some of the towns mentioned, Liévin (22,070), Hénin-Liétard (13,384), in the neighbourhood of Lens, are large centres of population. Other places of some importance are: Lillers (pop. 5341), which carries on bootmaking and has a fine Romanesque church of the 12th century; Hesdin, which owes its regular plan to Charles V., by whom it was built; and St Pol, which has the remains of medieval fortifications and castles and gave its name to the famous counts of St Pol. PASDELOUP, JULES ÉTIENNE (1819-1887), French conductor, was born in Paris, and educated in music at the conservatoire. He founded in 1851 a "société des jeunes artistes du conservatoire," and, as conductor of its concerts, did much to popularize the best new compositions of the time. His "popular concerts at the Cirque d'hiver, from 1861 till 1884, had also a great effect in promoting French taste in music. PASEWALK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the Ucker, 26 m. N.W. from Stettin by the railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 10,519. Pasewalk became a town during the 12th century and was soon a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1359 it passed to the duke of Pomerania. Frequently ravaged during the wars which devastated the district, it was plundered several times by the imperialists during the Thirty Years' War; in 1657 it was burnt by the Poles and in 1713 by the Russians. By the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was given to Sweden, but in 1676 it was conquered by Brandenburg, and in 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, it was definitely assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia. See Hückstädt, Geschichte der Stadt Pasewalk (Pasewalk, 1883). PASHA, also written "pacha " and formerly "pashaw," &c., a Turkish title, superior to that of bey (q.v.), borne by persons of high rank and placed after the name. It is in the gift of the sultan of Turkey and, by delegation, of the khedive of Egypt. The title appears, originally, to have been bestowed exclusively upon military commanders, but it is now given to any high official, and also to unofficial persons whom it is desired to honour. It is conferred indifferently upom Moslems and Christians, and is frequently given to foreigners in the service of the Turks or Egyptians. Pashas are of three grades, formerly distinguished by the number of horse-tails (three, two and one respectively) which they were entitled to display as symbols of authority when on campaign. A pashalik is a province governed by or under the jurisdiction of a pasha. The word is variously derived from the Persian padshah, Turkish pädishah, equivalent to king or emperor, and from the Turkish bash, in some dialects pash, a head, chief, &c. In old Turkish there was no fixed distinction between b and p. As first used in western Europe the title was written with the initial b. The English forms bashaw, bassaw, bucha, &c., general in the 16th and 17th centuries, were derived through the med. Lat. and Ital. bassa. PASIG, a town and the capital of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 6 m. E.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 11,287. The town, which covers a considerable area, is traversed by the Pasig river and its tributary, the Mariquino river, and for a short distance borders on Laguna de Bay. In the south-western part is Fort McKinley. Although built on low ground, Pasig is fairly healthy. It was formerly an important commercial centre, the inhabitants being largely engaged in a carrying and forwarding trade between Manila and the lake ports; but this trade was lost after the establishment of direct rail and steamboat service between these ports. The principal industries are rice-farming, the manufacture of a cheap red pottery, and fishing. The language is Tagalog. PASITELES, the most important member of the Neo-Attic school of sculpture in the time of Julius Caesar. At that period there was at Rome a demand for copies of, or variations on, noted works of Greek sculpture: the demand was met by the workshops of Pasiteles and his pupils Stephanus and Menelaus and others, several of whose statues are extant. In working from early Dorian models they introduced refinements of their own, with the result that they produced beautiful, but somewhat vapid and academic types. Pastiteles is said by Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 39) to have been a native of Magna Graecia, and to have been granted the Roman citizenship. PASKEVICH, IVAN FEDOROVICH (1782-1856), count of Erivan, prince of Warsaw, Russian field marshal, descended from an old and wealthy family, was born at Poltava on the 19th (8th) of May 1782. He was educated at the imperial institution for pages, where his progress was rapid, and in 1800 received his commission in the Guards and was named aide-de-camp to the tsar. His first active service was in 1805, in the auxiliary army sent to the assistance of Austria against France, when he took part in the battle of Austerlitz. From 1807 to 1812 he was engaged in the campaigns against Turkey, and distinguished himself by many brilliant and daring exploits, being made a general officer in his thirtieth year. During the French War of 1812-14 he was present, in command of the 26th division of infantry, at all the most important engagements; at the battle of Leipzig he won promotion to the rank of lieutenantgeneral. On the outbreak of war with Persia in 1826 he was appointed second in command, and, succeeding in the following year to the chief command, gained rapid and brilliant successes which compelled the shah to sue for peace in February |