combe. He was promoted lieutenant-general in 1851, made colonel commandant of the Royal Engineers in 1853, and general in 1860. He died in London on the 19th of April 1861. His eldest son, Major-General Charles Pasley (1824-1890), was a distinguished Royal Engineer officer.

1828. In reward of his services he was named by the emperor | with the East India Company's military academy at Addiscount of Erivan, and received a million of roubles and a diamondmounted sword. From Persia he was sent to Turkey in Asia, and, having captured in rapid succession the principal fortresses, he was at the end of the campaign made a field marshal at the age of forty-seven. In 1830 he subdued the mountaineers of Daghestan. In 1831 he was entrusted with the command of the army sent to suppress the revolt of Poland, and after the fall of Warsaw, which gave the death-blow to Polish independence, he was raised to the dignity of prince of Warsaw, and created viceroy of the kingdom of Poland. On the outbreak of the insurrection of Hungary in 1848 he was appointed to the command of the Russian troops sent to the aid of Austria, and finally compelled the surrender of the Hungarians at Világos. In April 1854 he again took the field in command of the army of the Danube, but on the 9th of June, at Silistria, where he suffered defeat, he received a contusion which compelled him to retire from active service. He died on the 13th (1st) of February 1856 at Warsaw, where in 1869 a memorial was erected to him. He held the rank of field marshal in the Prussian and Austrian armies as well as in his own service.

See Tolstoy, Essai biographique et historique sur le feld-maréchal Prince de Varsovie (Paris, 1835); Notice biographique sur le Maréchal Paskevitch (Leipzig, 1856); and Prince Stcherbatov's Life (St Petersburg, 1888-1894).

Amongst Pasley's works, besides those mentioned, were separate editions of his Practical Geometry Method (1822) and of his Course his Military Instruction; Rules for Escalading Fortifications not having of Elementary Fortification (1822), both of which formed part of Palisaded Covered Ways (1822; new eds. 1845 and 1854); descriptions of a semaphore invented by himself in 1804 (1822 and 1823): A Simple Practical Treatise on Field Fortification (1823); and Exercise of the Newdecked Pontoons invented by Lieutenant-Colonel Pasley (1823). PASQUIER, ÉTIENNE (1529-1615), French lawyer and man of letters, was born at Paris, on the 7th of June 1529 by his own account, according to others a year earlier. He was called to the Paris bar in 1549. In 1558 he became very ill through eating poisonous mushrooms, and did not recover fully for two years. This compelled him to occupy himself by literary work, and in 1560 he published the first book of his Recherches de la France. In 1565, when he was thirty-seven, his fame was established by a great speech still extant, in which he pleaded the cause of the university of Paris against the Jesuits, and won it. Meanwhile he pursued the Recherches steadily, and published from time to time much miscellaneous work. His literary and his legal occupations coincided in a curious fashion at the Grands Jours of Poitiers in 1579. These Grands Jours (an institution which fel into desuetude at the end of the 17th century, with bad effects on the social and political welfare of the French provinces) were a kind of irregular assize in which a commission of the parlement of Paris, selected and despatched at short notice by the king, had full power to hear and determine all causes, especially those in which seignorial rights had been abused. At the Grands Jours of Poitiers of the date mentioned, and at those of Troyes in 1583, Pasquier officiated; and each occasion has left a curious literary memorial of the jests with which he and his colleagues relieved their graver duties. The Poitiers work was the celebrated collection of poems on a flea (see Southey's Doctor). In 1585 Pasquier was appointed by Henry III. advocate-general at the Paris cours des comptes, an important body having political as well as financial and legal functions. Here he successfully, the mischievous system of selling hereditary places and offices, which more perhaps than any single thing was the curse of the older French monarchy. The civil wars compelled Pasquier to leave Paris and for some years he lived at Tours, working steadily at his great book, but he returned to Paris in Henry IV.'s train in March 1594. He continued until 1604 at his work in the chambre des comptes; then he retired. He survived this retirement more than ten years, producing much literary work, and died after a few hours' illness on the 1st of September 1615.

PASLEY, SIR CHARLES WILLIAM (1780-1861), British soldier and military engineer, was born at Eskdale Muir, Dumfriesshire, on the 8th of September 1780. In 1796 he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; a year later he gained his commission in the Royal Artillery, and in 1798 he was transferred to the Royal Engineers. He was present in the defence of Gaëta, the battle of Maida and the siege of Copenhagen. In 1807, being then a captain, he went to the Peninsula, where his knowledge of Spanish led to his employment on the staff of Sir David Baird and Sir John Moore. He took part in the retreat to Corunna and the Walcheren Expedition, and received a severe wound while gallantly leading a storming party at Flushing. During his tedious recovery he employed himself in learning German. He saw no further active service, the rest of his life being devoted to the foundation of a complete science of military engineering and to the thorough organization and training of the corps of Royal Engineers. He was so success-distinguished himself particularly by opposing, sometimes ful that, though only a captain, he was allowed to act for two years as commanding royal engineer at Plymouth and given a special grant. The events of the Peninsular War having emphasized the need of a fully trained engineer corps, Pasley's views were adopted by the war office, and he himself placed at the head of the new school of military engineering at Woolwich. This was in 1812, and Pasley was at the same time gazetted brevet major. He became brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1813 and substantive lieutenant-colonel in 1814. The first volume of his Military Instruction appeared in 1814, and contained a course of practical geometry which he had framed for his company at Plymouth. Two other volumes completing the work appeared by 1817, and dealt with the science and practice of fortification, the latter comprising rules for construction. He published a work on Practical Architecture, and prepared an important treatise on The Practical Operations of a Siege (1829-1832), which was translated into French (1847). He became brevet colonel in 1830 and substantive colonel in 1831. From 1831-1834 the subject that engaged his leisure was that of standardization of coins, weights and measures, and he published a book on this in 1834. In 1838 he was presented with the freedom of the city of London for his services in removing sunken vessels from the bed of the Thames near Gravesend; and from 1839 to 1844 he was occupied with clearing away the wrecks of H.M.S. "Royal George" from Spithead and H.M.S. "Edgar" from St Helens. All this work was subsidiary to his great work of creating a comprehensive art of military engineering. In 1841 on promotion to the rank of major-general he was made inspector-general of railways. In 1846 on vacating this appointment he was made a K.C.B., and thenceforward up to 1855 was chiefly concerned

In so long and so laborious a life Pasquier's work was naturally considerable, and it has never been fully collected or indeed printed. The standard edition is that of Amsterdam (2 vols. fol., 1723). But for ordinary readers the selections of Leon Feugere, published at Paris (2 vols. 8vo, 1849), with an elaborate introduction, are most accessible. As a poet Pasquier is chiefly interesting as a minor member of the Pléiade movement. As a prose writer he is of much more account. The three chief divisions of his prose work are his Recherches, his letters and his professional speeches. The letters are of much biographical interest and historical importance, and the Recherches contain in a somewhat miscellaneous fashion invaluable information on a vast variety of subjects, literary, political, antiquarian and other.

PASQUIER, ÉTIENNE DENIS, DUKE (1767-1862), French statesman, was born on the 22nd of April 1767. Descended from a family which had long been distinguished at the bar and in connexion with the parlements of France, he was destined for the legal profession and was educated at the college of July. He then became a counsellor of the parlement of Paris, and witnessed many of the incidents that marked the growing hostility between that body and Louis XVI. in the years preceding the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. His views

were those of a moderate reformer, who desired to renovate but | and later he quotes some utterances of Pasquin's in his letters to not to end the institutions of the old monarchy; and his memoirs the bishop of Maillezais. These, by the way, show that Pasquin set forth in a favourable light the actions of that parlement, was by no means always satirical, but dealt in grave advice and the existence of which was soon to be terminated amid the comment. The original Latin pasquinades were collected in political storms of the close of the year 1789. For some time, 1544, as Pasquillorum tomi duo, edited by Caelius Secundus and especially during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), Pasquier Curio. The vogue of these lampoons now became general, and remained in obscurity; but this did not save him from arrest rose to its height during the pontificate of Sixtus V. (1585-1590). in the year 1794. He was thrown into prison shortly before These utterances were not only called pasquinades (pasquinate) the coup d'état of Thermidor (July 1794) which overthrew but simply pasquils (pasquillus, pasquillo, pasquille), and this Robespierre. In the reaction in favour of ordinary govern- form was sometimes used for the mythical personage himself. It ment which ensued Pasquier regained his liberty and his estates. was used in English for purposes of satire by Sir Thomas Elyot, He did not re-enter the public service until the period of the in his Pasquin the Plain (1540) and by the anonymous author of Empire, when the arch-chancellor Cambacérès used his influence Pasquin in a Trance (1566); but it was first made popular in with Napoleon to procure for him the office of "maître des England by Thomas Nash, who in 1589 began to sign his violent requetês" to the council of state. In 1809 he became baron controversial pamphlets with the pseudonym of Pasquil of of the French Empire, and in February 1810 counsellor of state. England. It continues to occur through the course of the Napoleon in 1810 made him prefect of police. The chief event | Marprelate controversy as the title of the enemy of the Puritans. which ruffled the course of his life at that time was the strange These English lampoons were in prose. The French pasquils conspiracy of the republican general Malet (Oct. 1812), who, (examples of which may be found in Fournier's Variétés historgiving out that Napoleon had perished in Russia, managed to iques et littéraires) were more usually in verse. In Italy itself surprise and capture some of the ministers and other authorities Pasquin is said not to have condescended to the vernacular till at Paris, among them Pasquier. The collapse of this bold the 18th century. Contemporary comic periodicals, especially attempt enabled him, however, speedily to regain his liberty. in Italy, still occasionally use the Marforio-Pasquino dialogue When Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 Pasquier continued form. But this survival is purely artificial and literary, and to exercise his functions for a few days in order to preserve pasquinade has, as noted above, ceased to have any precise order, and then resigned the prefecture of police, whereupon meaning. Louis XVIII. allotted to him the control of roads and bridges. He took no share in the imperial restoration at the time of the Hundred Days (1815), and after the second entry of Louis XVIII. into Paris he became minister of the interior, but finding it impossible to work with the hot headed royalists of the Chamber of Deputies (La Chambre introuvable), he,resigned office. Under the more moderate ministers of succeeding years he again held various appointments, but refused to join the reactionary cabinets of the close of the reign of Charles X. After the July Revolution (1830) he became president of the Chamber of Peers -a post which he held through the whole of the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848). In 1842 he was elected a member of the French Academy, and in the same year was created a duke. After the overthrow of Louis Philippe in February 1848, Pasquier retired from active life and set to work to compile the notes and reminiscences of his long and active career. He died in 1862. See Mémoires du Chancelier Pasquier (6 vols., Paris, 1893-1895: partly translated into English, 4 vols., London, 1893-1894). Also L. de Vieilcastel, Histoire de la Restauration, vols. i.-iv. (J. HL. R.)

PASQUINADE, a variety of libel or lampoon, of which it is not easy to give an exact definition, separating it from other kinds. It should, perhaps, more especially deal with public men and public things. The distinction, however, has been rarely observed in practice, and the chief interest in the word is its curious and rather legendary origin. According to the earliest version, given by Mazocchi in 1509, Pasquino was a schoolmaster (others say a cobbler), who had a biting tongue, and lived in the 15th century at Rome. His name, at the end of that century or the beginning of the next, was transferred to a statue which had been dug up in 1501 in a mutilated condition (some say near his shop) and was set up at the corner of the Piazza Navona, opposite the palace of Cardinal Caraffa. To this statue it became the custom to affix squibs on the papal government and on prominent persons. At the beginning of the 16th century Pasquin had a partner provided for him in the shape of another statue found in the Campus Martius, said to represent a river god, and dubbed Marforio, a foro Martis. The regulation form of the pasquinade then became one of dialogue, or rather question and answer, in which Marforio usually addressed leading inquiries to his friend. The proceeding soon attained a certain European notoriety, and a printed collection of the squibs due to it (they were long written in Latin verse, with an occasional excursion into Greek) appeared in 1509. In the first book of Pantagruel (2532 or thereabouts) Rabelais introduces books by Pasquillus and Marphurius in the catalogue of the library of St Victor, XX 15*

PASQUINI, BERNARDO (1637-1710), Italian musical composer, was born at Massa in Val di Nievole (Tuscany) on the 8th of December 1637 He was a pupil of Marcantonio Cesti and Loreto Vittori. He came to Rome while still young and entered the service of Prince Borghese; later he became organist of St Maria Maggiore. He enjoyed the protection of Queen Christina of Sweden, in whose honour an opera of his, Dov'è amore è pieta, was produced in 1679. During Alessandro Scarlatti's second sojourn in Rome (1703-1708), Pasquini and Corelli were frequently associated with him in musical performances, especially in connexion with the Arcadian Academy, of which all three were members. Pasquini died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1710, and was buried in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina. He deserves remembrance as a vigorous composer for the harpsichord; and an interesting account of his music for this instrument will be found in J. S. Shedlock's The Pianoforte Sonata.

PASSACAGLIA, the name of an old Spanish dance, supposed to be derived from pasar, to walk, and calle, street, the tune being played by wandering musicians in the streets. It was a slow and rather solemn dance of one or two dancers. The dance tune resembled the "chaconne," and was, like it, constructed on a ground-bass. Brahms's Symphony in E Minor, No. 4, ends with an elaborate passacaglia.

PASSAGLIA, CARLO (1812-1887), Italian divine, was born at Lucca on the 2nd of May 1812. Passaglia was soon destined for the priesthood, and was placed under the care of the Jesuits at the age of fifteen. He became successively doctor in mathematics, philosophy and theology in the university of Rome. In 1844 he was made professor in the Collegio Romano, the wellknown Jesuit college in Rome. In 1845 he took the vows as a member of the Jesuit order. In 1848, during the expulsion of the Jesuits from Rome which followed on the revolutionary troubles in the Italian peninsula, he paid a brief visit to England. On his return to Italy he founded, with the assistance of Father Curci and Luigi Taparelli d'Azeglio, the celebrated organ of the Jesuit order entitled the Civiltà Cattolica. In 1854 came the decision of the Roman Church on the long-debated question of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. Into the agitation for the promulgation of this dogma Passaglia threw himself with great eagerness, and by so doing recommended himself strongly to Pope Pius IX. But his favour with the pope was of short duration. In 1859, when the war between Austria and France (the first step towards the unification of Italy) broke out, Passaglia espoused the popular side. He took refuge at Turin, and under the influence of Cavour he wrote an Epistola ad

office occupies the site of a building in which in 1552 the Treaty of Passau was signed between the emperor Charles V. and Maurice, elector of Saxony. The fine Dom Platz contains a statue of the Bavarian king, Maximilian I. The old forts and bastions of the city have been demolished, but the two linked fortresses, the Oberhaus and the Niederhaus, are still extant. The former was built early in the 13th century by the bishop in consequence of a revolt on the part of the citizens; the latter, mentioned as early as 737, is now private property. The chief industries are the manufacture of tobacco, beer, leather, porcelain, machinery and paper. Large quantities of timber are floated down the Ilz. The well-known Passau crucibles are made at the neighbouring village of Obernzell.

Episcopos Catholicos pro causa Italica, in which, like Liverani | of St John; and the Romanesque Votiv Kirche. The post before him, he boldly attacked the temporal power of the pope. For this he was expelled from the order of Jesuits, his book was put on the Index, and his figure struck out, by the pope's order, from a picture painted to commemorate the proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. A refuge from the anger of the pope was afforded him in the Casa Cavour at Turin, the house in which Cavour was born. There he laboured for Italian unity with indomitable energy in the north of Italy, in conjunction with Cardinal d'Andrea in the south, and he collected the signatures of 9000 priests to an address to the pope in opposition to the temporal power, and in favour of abandoning all resistance to the union of Italy under a king of the House of Savoy. He and the 9000 priests were excommunicated on the 6th of October 1862. Passagilia disregarded his excommunication, and continued his work as professor of moral philosophy at Turin, to which he had been appointed in 1861, and began a series of Advent addresses in the church of San Carlo at Milan. But on arriving in order to preach his second sermon he found himself met by an inhibition on the part of Mgr Caccia, the administrator of the archdiocese of Milan. Elected deputy in the Italian parliament, he still advocated strongly the cause of Italian independence, and at a later period wrote a defence of the rights of the episcopate under the title of La Causa di sua eminenza il cardinale d'Andrea. He also (1864) wrote against Renan's Vie de Jésus. Eight days before his death he endeavoured to be reconciled to the pope, and made a full retractation. He died at Turin on the 12th of March 1887.

PASSAIC, a city of Passaic county, New Jersey, U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Passaic river, 5 m. S.S.E. of Paterson. (Pop. (1890), 13,028; (1900), 27,777, of whom 12,900 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 54,773. Passaic is served by the Erie and the Delaware, Lackawana & Western railways. The east part of the city is a plain occupied chiefly by factories, for which water-power is furnished by the river and a canal; the west part, which is almost wholly residential, extends over hills which command excellent views. Among the principal buildings are the city hall, and the Jane Watson Reid Memorial Library. The city's factory products increased in value from $12,804,805 in 1900 to $22,782,725 in 1905, or 77.9%. About one-half of the value in 1905 was in worsteds, cottons and woollens; other important manufactures are rubber goods and electrical supplies. There are large vineyards near the city. A settlement was established here by the Dutch in 1679, and was called Acquackanonk or Paterson Landing until the middle of the 19th century. Passaic was incorporated as a village in 1869, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.

See W. J. Pape and W. W. Scott, The News History of Passaic

(Passaic, 1899).

PASSAU, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Danube, the Inn and the Ilz, close to the Austrian frontier, 89 m. N.E. from Munich and 74 S.E. of Regensburg by rail. Pop. (1900), 18,003, nearly all being Roman Catholics. Passau consists of the town proper, lying on the rocky tongue of land between the Danube and the Inn, and of four suburbs, Innstadt on the right bank of the Inn, Ilzstadt on the left bank of the Ilz, Anger in the angle between Ilz and the Danube, and St Nikola. It is one of the most beautiful places on the Danube, a fine effect being produced by the way in which the houses are piled up one above another on the heights rising from the river. The best general view is obtained from the Oberhaus, an old fortress, now used as a prison, which crowns a hill 300 ft. high on the left bank of the Danube. Of the eleven churches, the most interesting is the cathedral of St Stephen, a florid, rococo edifice. It was built after a fire in the 17th century on the site of a church said to have been founded in the 5th century; it has two towers, and contains some valuable relics. Other churches are the Gothic church of the Holy Ghost; the churches of St Severin, of St Paul and of St Gertrude; the double church of St Salvator; the Romanesque church of the Holy Cross; the pilgrimage church of Our Lady of Succour (Mariahilf); the church of the hospital

Passau is of ancient origin. The first settlement was probably a Celtic one, Boiudurum; this was on the site of the present Innstadt. Afterwards the Romans established a colony of Batavian veterans, the castra balava here. It received civic rights in 1225, and soon became a prosperous place, but much of its history consists of broils between the bishops and the citizens. The strong fortress of the Oberhaus was taken by the Austrians in 1742, and again in 1805. The bishopric of Passan was founded by St Boniface in 738. The diocese was a large one, including until 1468 not only much of Bavaria, but practically the whole of the archduchy of Austria. About 1260 the bishop became a prince of the empire. Amongst the earlier bishops was Pilgrin or Piligrim (d. 991), and among the later ones were the Austrian archdukes, Leopold and Leopold William, the former a brother and the latter a son of the emperor Ferdinand II. In 1803 the bishopric was secularized, and in 1805 its lands came into the possession of Bavaria. The area, which was diminished in the 15th, and again in the 18th century, was then about 350 sq. m., and the population about 50,000. A new bishopric of Passau, with ecclesiastical jurisdiction only, was established in 1817.

See Erhart, Geschichte der Stadt Passau (Passau, 1862-1864); and Morin, Passau (1878). For the history of the bishopric see Scholler, Die Bischöfe von Passau (Passau, 1844); and Schrodĺ, Passaria sacra Geschichte des Bistums Passau (Passau, 1879).

PASSERAT, JEAN (1534-1602), French poet, was born at Troyes, on the 18th of October 1534. He studied at the university of Paris, and is said to have had some curious adventures -at one time working in a mine. He was, however, a scholar by natural taste, and became eventually a teacher at the College de Plessis, and on the death of Ramus was made professor of Latin in 1572 in the Collège de France. In the meanwille Passerat had studied law, and had composed much agreeable poetry in the Pléiade style, the best pieces being his short ode Du Premier jour de mai, and the charming villanelle, J'ai porta ma tourterelle. His exact share in the Satyre ménipple (Tours, 1594), the great manifesto of the politique or Moderate Royalst party when it had declared itself for Henry of Navarre, is differently stated; but it is agreed that he wrote most of the verse, and the harangue of the guerrilla chief Rieux is sometimes attributed to him. The famous lines Sur la journée de Sendis, in which he commends the duc d'Aumale's ability in running away, is one of the most celebrated political songs in French Towards the end of his life he became blind. He died in Paris on the 14th of September 1602.

Poésies françaises (1880). Among his Latin works should be noticed
See a notice by P. Blanchemain prefixed to his edition of Passerat's
Kalendac januariae et varia quaedam poemata (2 vols., 16061 ad
dressed chiefly to his friend and patron Henri de Mesmes. For the
Satyre ménippée see the edition of Charles Read (1876).

PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from poti, possus, to suffer, endure), a term which is used in two main senses: (1) the suffering of pain, and (2) feeling or emotion. The first is chiefly used of the sufferings of Jesus Christ, extending from the time of the agony in the garden until his death on the cross. In this sense passio was used by the early Christian writers, and the term is also applied to the sufferings and deeds of saints and martyrs, synonymously with acta or gesta, a book containing such being known as a "passional" (liber passionalis) of

for seven days. On the morrow after the sabbath a wave offering and also a burnt offering of the he-lamb (with the corresponding meal and drink offering). Neither bread nor parched corn nor fresh ears shall be eaten until the oblation is made.

F. In the Priestly History (Exod. xii. 1-20, 28-31, xiii. 1-2). On the 10th day of the month every household shall take a firstling male without blemish, of sheep or goat, and should kill it on the 14th at even, and sprinkle the two sideposts and lintel with the blood, and eat the roasted flesh, not sodden, including head, legs and inwards; all remaining over until the morning to be burnt by fire. It should be eaten with loins girded, shoes on feet, and staf in hand because in haste. It is the Lord's Passover; when He sees the blood He will pass over you and there will be no plague upon you. As a memorial of this you shall eat unleavened bread seven days, on the 14th day at eve until the 21st day at eve; when children shall ask what this service means, you shall say that it is the Passover of the Lord.

PASSOVER, a Hebrew spring festival, celebrated by the Jews | First and seventh days shall be holy assembly, but a re-offering in commemoration of the exodus from Egypt by a family feast in the home on the first evening, and by abstaining from leaven during the seven days of the feast. According to tradition, the first Passover ("The Passover of Egypt"), was preordained by Moses at the command of God. The Israelites were commanded to select on the tenth of Abib (Nisan) a he-lamb of the first year, without blemish, to kill it on the eve of the fourteenth and to sprinkle with its blood the lintel and sidepost of the doors of their dwellings so that the Lord should "pass over" them when he went forth to slay the first-born of the Egyptians. The lamb thus drained of blood was to be roasted and entirely consumed by the Israelites, who should be ready with loins girded, shoes on feet and staff in hand so as to be prepared for the exodus. In memory of this the Israelites were for all time to eat unleavened bread (mazzoth) for seven days, as well as keep the sacrifice of the Passover on the eve between the fourteenth and the fifteenth of Nisan. This evening meal was not to be attended by any stranger or uncircumcised person. "On the morrow of the Sabbath" a wave offering of a sheaf of barley was to be made. Those who were unable to perform the sacrifice of the Passover owing to impurity at the appointed time, were permitted to do so a month later. Various theories have been from time to time proposed to account for this complex of enactments. J. Spencer in his De legibus Hebracorum saw in the Passover a practical protest against the Egyptian worship of Apis. Vatke considered it a celebration of the spring solstice, Baur a means of removing the impurity of the old year. Lengerke recognized a double motive: the lamb for atonement, the unleavened bread as a trace of the haste of the early harvest. Ewald regarded the Passover as an original pre-Mosaic spring festival made to serve the interest of purity and atonement.

All these views have, however, been cast in the shade by more recent investigations based on minute literary analysis of the Pentateuch, begun by Graf, continued by Kuenen, and culminating in the work of Wellhausen and Robertson Smith. This view claims to determine the respective ages and relative chronological position of the various passages in which the Passover is referred to in the Pentateuch, and assumes that each successive stratum represents the practice in ancient Israel at the time of composition, laying great stress upon omissions as implying non-existence. The main passages and their contents are arranged chronologically in the following way:

in the month Abib.

A. In the Elohist Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxiii.). The feast of unleavened bread to be kept seven days at the time appointed B. In the Yahwist Source (Exod. xxxiv. 18-21, 25). The feast of unleavened bread to be kept seven days, &c. All firstlings to be the Lord's. First-born sons to be redeemed; none to appear before the Lord empty; six days' work, seventh day rest, in the harvest; the sacrifice of the Passover shall not remain until the morning.

C. In the Yahwistic History (Exod. xii. 21-27, 29-36, 38-39, xiii. 316). Moses summons the elders of Israel and orders them to kill the Passover and besprinkle the lintel and sideposts with a bunch of hyssop dipped in blood so that the Lord will pass over the door. In later days when the children shall ask what this means it shall be said that this is the sacrifice of the Lord's Passover. At midnight all the first-born of the Egyptians are slain and Pharaoh sends the Israelites out of Egypt in haste, and the people took the dough before it was leavened upon kneading troughs upon their shoulders.

D. The Deuteronomist (Deut. xvi. 1-8, 16–17). Observe the month of Abib and keep the Passover because in that month God brought out the Israelites from Egypt. The sacrifice of the Passover of the flock and the herd shall be done in the place where God shall cause His name to dwell. No leaven shall be caten with it for seven days, and bread of affliction shall be eaten because they came forth from Egypt in haste. Flesh shall not remain until the morning; the sacrifice must not be within their gates but in the place where the Lord shall cause His name to dwell. It shall be sodden and eaten, and in the morning they should go to their tents. Six days eat unleavened bread, on the seventh a solemn assembly. Reckon seven weeks from the time of putting the sickle to the standing

G. In the Secondary Sources of the Priestly Code (Exod. xii. 40-41, 43-50, ix. 1-14, xiv. 16-25). No alien, sojourner or hired servant shall eat thereof, but a bought servant, if circumcised. It shall shall a bone be broken. If a sojourner should wish to keep the be eaten in haste; none of the flesh shall be carried forth, neither Passover, all his male shall be circumcised and he will be as one born in the land. The Passover was kept in the first month on the 14th day of the month at even in the wilderness of Sinai; but certain men, unclean by touching a dead body, asked what they should do; they were to keep it on the second month on the 14th day, eating it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, leaving none of it until the morning, nor breaking a bone. The first month on the 14th day of the month is the Passover; the 15th day of this month shall be a feast; seven days unleavened bread to be eaten; first day a holy assembly with fire offering, two young bullocks and one lamb and seven firstling be-lambs without blemish, with appropriate meal offering and one he-goat for sin-offering; on the seventh day another holy assembly.

Many discrepancies have been observed among critics in the different portions of this series of enactments. Thus in the Elohist and in Deuteronomy the date of the festival is only vaguely stated to be in the month of Abib, while in the Holiness Code and in the Priestly History the exact date is given. In the Yahwist and Deuteronomist a solemn assembly is to be held on the seventh day, but in the Holiness Code and in the secondary sources of the Priestly Code both the first and the seventh day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread are to be solemn assemblies. In the Deuteronomist the Passover sacrifice can be from either flock or herd, whereas in the Holiness Code only lamb is mentioned, and in the Priestly Code either kid or lamb. In the Deuterono mist the lamb is to be sodden or boiled, whereas in the Priestly Code this is expressly forbidden. A still more vital contrast occurs concerning the place of sacrificing the Passover, as enjoined in Deuteronomy this is to be by the males of the family at Jerusalem, whereas both in the presumably earlier Yahwist and in the later Priestly Code the whole household joins in the festival which can be celebrated wherever the Israelites are settled. These discrepancies however are chiefly of interest in their bearing upon the problem of the Pentateuch, and really throw little light upon the origin of the two feasts connected together under the name of the Passover, to which the present remarks must be mainly confined. It may be observed however that the absence of a definite date in Deuteronomy must be accidental. since a common pilgrimage feast must be on a fixed day, and the reference to the seven weeks elapsing between Passover and Pentecost also implies the fixing of the date. So too even in the Elohist the time is appointed.

Reverting to the origin and the meaning of the feast, modern criticism draws attention to the different nature of the two observances combined with the name Passover, the pastoral sacrifice of the paschal lamb and the agricultural observance of a seven days' abstention from unleavened bread. It is assumed that the former arose during the pastoral period of Israelite history before or during the stay in Egypt, while the latter was adopted from the Canaanites after the settlement in Palestine. Against this may be urged that, according to the latest inquiries into the pastoral life, there is always connected with it some form of agriculture and a use of cereals, while, historically speaking. E. In the Holiness Code (Lev. xxiii. 4-8, 9-14). The 14th of the Israelites while in Egypt were dependent on its corn. There the first month at even is the Passover of the Lord; on the 15th is, further, the objection that no distinctive crisis in the agricul of the same month is the feast of unleavened bread for seven days.tural era can be associated with the date of the Passover. The

corn.