earliest times down to the Mahommedan invasion, was worked up | became world-wide, and every contemporary authority is full by him into a connected historical account.

of the acclamation with which Orlando was greeted wherever his travels took him.

LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-1904), Belgian musical composer,
was born in Copenhagen, but was taken as a child to Brussels
and educated at the Brussels Conservatoire. He won the prix
de Rome in 1851, and went for a long tour in Germany and Italy.
He settled at Weimar, where in 1861 he succeeded Liszt as
conductor of the opera, and he died there on the 15th of
January 1904. Besides many well-known songs, he wrote
operas-Landgraf Ludwig's Braulfahrt (1857), Frauenlob (1861),
Le Captif (1868)-instrumental music to dramas, notably to
Goethe's Faust (1876), two symphonies and various choral works.
LASSO (LASSUS), ORLANDO (c. 1530-1594), Belgian musical
composer, whose real name was probably Roland Delattre, was
born at Mons, in Hainault, probably not much earlier than 1532,
the date given by the epitaph printed at the end of the volumes of
the Magnum opus musicum; though already in the 16th century
the opinions of his biographers were divided between the years
1520 and 1530 Much is reported, but very little known, of
his connexions and his early career. The discrepancy as to the
date of his birth appears also in connexion with his appointment
at the church of St John Lateran in Rome. If he was born in
1530 or 1532 he could not have obtained that appointment
in 1541
What is certain is that his first book of madrigals was
published in Venice in 1555, and that in the same year he speaks
of himself in the preface of Italian and French songs and Latin
motets as if he had recently come from Rome. He seems to have
visited England in 1554 and to have been introduced to Cardinal
Pole, to whom an adulatory motet appears in 1556. (This is
not, as might hastily be supposed, a confusion resulting from
the fact that the ambassador from Ferdinand, king of the Romans,
Don Pedro de Lasso, attended the marriage of Philip and Mary
in England in the same year.) His first book of motets appeared
at Antwerp in 1556, containing the motet in honour of Cardinal |
Pole. The style of Orlando had already begun to purify itself
from the speculative and chaotic elements that led Burney, who
seems to have known only his earlier works, to call him "a dwarf
on stilts "
as compared with Palestrina. But where he is
orthodox he is as yet stiff, and his secular compositions are, so
far, better than his more serious efforts.

Very soon, with this rapid means of acquiring experience, Orlando's style became as pure as Palestrina's; while he always retained his originality and versatility. His relations to the literary culture of the time are intimate and fascinating; and during his stay at the court of France in 1571 he became a friend of the poet Ronsard. In 1579 Duke Albrecht died Orlando's salary had already been guaranteed to him for life, so that his outward circumstances did not change, and the new duke was very kind to him. But the loss of his master was a great grief and seems to have checked his activity for some time. In 1589, after the publication of six Masses, ending with a beautiful Missa pro defunctis, his strength began to fail; and a sudden serious illness left him alarmingly depressed and inactive until his death on the 14th of June 1594.

If Palestrina represents the supreme height attained by 16thcentury music, Orlando represents the whole century. It is impossible to exaggerate the range and variety of his style, so long as we recognise the limits of 16th-century musical language. Even critics to whom this language is unfamiliar cannot fail to notice the glaring differences between Orlando's numerous types of art, though such critics may believe all those types to be equally crude and archaic. The swiftness of Orlando's intellectual and artistic development is astonishing. His first four volumes of madrigals show a very intermittent sense of beauty. Many a number in them is one compact mass of the fashionable harsh play upon the "false relation" between twin major and minor chords, which is usually believed to be the unenviable distinction of the English madrigal style from that of the Italians. It must be confessed that in the Italian madrigal (as distinguished from the villanella and other light forms), Orlando never attained complete certainty of touch, though some of his later madrigals are indeed glorious. But in his French chansons, many of which are settings of the poems of his friend Ronsard, his wit and lightness of touch are unfailing. In setting other French poems he is sometimes unfortunately most witty where the words are most gross, for he is as free from modern scruples as any of his Elizabethan contemporaries. In 1562, when the Council of Trent was censuring the abuses of Flemish church music, Orlando had already purified his ecclesiastical style; though he did not go so far as to Italianize it in order to oblige those modern critics who are unwilling to believe that anything appreciably unlike Palestrina can be legitimate. At the same time Orlando's Masses are not among his greatest works. This is possibly partly due to the fact that the proportions of a musical Mass are at the mercy of the local practice of the liturgy; and that perhaps the uses of the court at Munich were not quite so favourable to broadly designed proportion (not length) as the uses of Rome. Differences which might cramp the 16th-century composer need not amount to anything that would draw down the censure of ecclesiastical authorities. Be this as it may, Orlando's other church music is always markedly different from Palestrina's, and often fully as sublime. It is also in many ways far more modern in resource. We frequently come upon things like the Justorum animae [Magnum Opus, No. 260 (301)] which in their way are as overpoweringly touching as, for example, the Benedictus of Beethoven's Mass in D or the soprano solo in Brahms's Deutsches Requiem.

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In 1557, if not before, he was invited by Albrecht IV., duke of Bavaria, to go to Munich. The duke was a most intelligent | patron of all the fine arts, a notable athlete, and a man of strict principles. Munich from henceforth never ceased to be Orlando's home; though he sometimes paid long visits to Italy and France, whether in response to royal invitations or with projects of his own. In 1558 he made a very happy marriage by which he had four sons and two daughters. The four sons all became good musicians, and we owe an inestimable debt to the pious industry of the two eldest sons, who (under the patronage of Duke Maximilian I., the second successor of Orlando's master) published the enormous collection of Orlando's Latin motets known as the Magnum opus musicum.

Probably no composer has ever had more ideal circumstances for artistic inspiration and expression than had Orlando. His duty was to make music all day and every day, and to make it according to his own taste. Nothing was too good, too severe or too new for the duke. Church music was not more in demand than secular. Instrumental music, which in the 16th century had hardly any independent existence, accompanied the meals of the court; and Orlando would rise from dessert to sing trios and quartets with picked voices. The daily prayers included a full mass with polyphonic music. This amazing state of things becomes more intelligible and less alarming when we consider that 16th-century music was no sooner written than it could be performed. With such material as Orlando had at his disposal, musical performance was as unattended by expense and tedious preliminaries as a game of billiards in a good billiard room. Not even Haydn's position at Esterhaz can have enabled him, as has been said, to "ring the bell " for musicians to come and try a new orchestral effect with such ease as that with which Orlando could produce his work at Munich. His fame soon

No one has approached Orlando in the ingenuity, quaintness and humour of his tone-painting. He sometimes descends to extremely elaborate musical puns, carrying farther than any other composer since the dark ages the absurd device of setting syllables that happened to coincide with the sol-fa system to the corresponding sol-fa notes. But in the most absurd of such cases he evidently enjoys twisting these notes into a theme of pregnant musical meaning. The quaintest instance is the motet Quid estis pusillanimes [Magnum Opus, No. 92 (69)) where extra sol-fa syllables are introduced into the text to make a good theme in combination with the syllables already there by accident! (An nescitis Justitiae Ul Sol [Fa Mi] Re Laxalas

and Hell; the "last day" means the Day of Judgment (see
ESCHATOLOGY).

2. (O.E. lást, footstep; the word appears in many Teutonic
languages, meaning foot, footstep, track, &c.; it is usually
referred to a Teutonic root lais, cognate with Lat. lira, a furrow;
from this root, used figuratively, came "learn" and "lore "),
originally a footstep, trace or track, now only used of the model
of a foot in wood on which a shoemaker makes boots and shoes;
hence the proverb "let the cobbler stick to his last,” “ne sulor
ultra crepidam.”.

"6

3. (O.E. hlaest; the work is connected with the root seen in lade," and is used in German and Dutch of a weight; it is also seen in "ballast "), a commercial weight or measure of quantity, varying according to the commodity and locality; originally applied to the load of goods carried by the boat or wagon used in carrying any particular commodity in any particular locality, it is now chiefly used as a weight for fish, a "last" of herrings being equal to from 10,000 to 12,000 fish. The German Last 40c0 lb, and this is frequently taken as the nominal weight of an English "last." A "last" of wool=12 sacks, and of beer-12 barrels.

habenas possit denuo cohibere?). The significance of these euphuistic jokes is that they always make good music in Orlando's hands. There is musical fun even in his voluminous parody of the stammering style of word-setting in the burlesque motet S.U.Su. PER. per. super F.L.U., which gets through one verse of a psalm in fifteen minutes.

When it was a question of purely musical high spirits Orlando was unrivalled; and his setting of Walter de Mape's Fertur in conviviis (given in the Magnum opus with a stupid moral derangement of the text), and most of his French chansons, are among the most deeply humorous music in the world.

But it is in the tests of the sublime that Orlando shows himself one of the greatest minds that ever found expression in art. Nothing sublime was too unfamiliar to frighten him into repressing his quaint fancy, though he early repressed all that thwarted his musical nature. His Penitential Psalms stand with Josquin's Miserere and Palestrina's first book of Lamentations as artistic monuments of 16th-century penitential religion, just as Bach's Matthew Passion stands alone among such monuments in later art. Yet the passage (quoted by Sir Hubert Parry in vol. 3 of the Oxford History of Music) "Nolite fieri sicut mulus" is one among many traits which are ingeniously and grotesquely descriptive without losing harmony with the austere profundity of the huge works in which they occur. It is impossible to read any large quantity of Orlando's mature music without feeling that a mind like his would in modern times have covered a wider field of mature art than any one classical or modern composer known to us. Yet we cannot say that anything has been lost by his belonging to the 16th century. His music, if only from its peculiar technique of crossing parts and unexpected intervals, is exceptionally difficult to read; and hence intelligent conducting and performance of it is rare. But its impressiveness is beyond dispute; and there are many things which, like the Justorum animae cannot even be read, much less heard, without emotion.

"

Orlando's works as shown by the plan of Messrs Breitkopf & Härtel's complete critical edition (begun in 1894) comprise: (1) the Magnum opus musicum, a posthumous collection containing Latin pieces for from two to twelve voices, 516 in number (or, counting by single movements, over 700). Not all of these are to the original texts. The Magnum opus fills eleven volumes. (2) Five volumes of madrigals, containing six books, and a large number of single madrigals, and about half a volume of lighter Italian songs (villanellas, &c.). (3) Three volumes (not four as in the prospectus) of French chansons. (4) Two volumes of German four-part and fivepart Lieder. (5) Serial church music: three volumes, containing Lessons from the Book of Job (two settings). Passion according to St Matthew (i.e. like the Passions of Victoria and Soriano, a setting of the words of the crowds and of the disciples); Lamentations of Jeremiah: Morning Lessons; the Officia printed in the third volume of the Patroncinium (a publication suggested and supported by Orlando's patrons and containing eight entire volumes of his works): the Seven Penitential Psalms; German Psalms and Prophetiae Sibyllarum, (6) one hundred Magnificats (Jubilus B. M. Virginis) 3 vols., (7) eight volumes of Masses, (8) two volumes of Latin songs not in the Magnum opus, (9) five volumes of unpublished works. (D. F. T.) LASSO (Span. lazo, snare, ultimately from Lat. laqueus, cf. "lace"), a rope 60 to 100 ft. in length with a slip-noose at one end, used in the Spanish and Portuguese parts of America and in the western United States for catching wild horses and cattle. It is now less employed in South America than in the vast grazing country west of the Mississippi river, where the herders, called locally cow-boys or cow-punchers, are provided with it. When not in use, the lasso, called rope in the West, is coiled at the right of the saddle in front of the rider. When an animal is to be caught the herder, galloping after it, swings the coiled lasso round his head and casts it straight forward in such a manner that the noose settles over the head or round the legs of the quarry, when it is speedily brought into submission. A❘ shorter called lariat (Span. la reata) is used to picket horses. LAST. 1. (A syncopated form of "latest," the superlative | of O.E. laét, late), an adjective applied to the conclusion of anything, al that remains after everything else has gone, or that which has just occurred. In theology the "four last things" denote the final scenes of Death, Judgment, Heaven

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LASUS, Greek lyric poet, of Hermione in Argolis, flourished about 510 B.C. A member of the literary and artistic circle of the Peisistratidae, he was the instructor of Pindar in music and poetry and the rival of Simonides. The dithyramb (of which he was sometimes considered the actual inventor) was developed by him, by the aid of various changes in music and rhythm, into an artistically constructed choral song, with an accompaniment of several flutes. It became more artificial and mimetic in character, and its range of subjects was no longer confined to the adventures of Dionysus. Lasus further increased its popularity by introducing prize contests for the best poem of the kind. His over-refinement is shown by his avoidance of the letter sigma (on account of its hissing sound) in several of his poems, of one of which (a hymn to Demeter of Hermione) a few lines have been preserved in Athenaeus (xiv. 624 E). Lasus was also the author of the first theoretical treatise on music.

See Suidas ..; Aristophanes, Wasps, 1410, Birds, 1403 and
schol.; Plutarch, De Musica, xxix.; Müller and Donaldson, Hist.
of Greek Literature, i. 284; G. H. Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen
Dichtkunst, ii. pt. 2, p. 111; F. W. Schneidewin, De Laso Hermionensi
Comment. (Göttingen, 1842); Fragm. in Bergk, Poet, Lyr.

LAS VEGAS, a city and the county-seat of San Miguel county,
New Mexico, U.S.A., in the north central part of New Mexico,
on the Gallinas river, and 83 m. by rail E. of Santa Fé. Though
usually designated as a single municipality, Las Vegas consists
of two distinct corporations, the old town on the W. bank of the
river and the city proper on the E. bank. Pop. of the city (1890)
2385; (1900) 3552 (340 being foreign-born and 116 negroes);
(1910) 3755. According to local estimates, the combined
population of the city and the old town in 1908 was 10,000. Las
Vegas is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway,
and is its division headquarters in New Mexico. The city lies
in a valley at the foot of the main range of the Rocky Mountains,
and is about 6400 ft. above the sea. There are high peaks to the
W. and within a short distance of the city much beautiful
mountain scenery, especially along the "Scenic Route," a
highway from Las Vegas to Santa Fé, traversing the Las Vegas
canyon and the Pecos Valley forest reserve. The country E. of
the city consists of level plains. The small amount of rainfall, the
great elevation and the southern latitude give the region a dry
and rarified air, and Las Vegas is a noted health resort. Six miles
distant, and connected with the city by rail, are the Las Vegas
Hot Springs. The old town on the W. bank of the Gallinas
river retains many features of a Mexican village, with low adobe
houses facing narrow and crooked streets. Its inhabitants are
largely of Spanish-American descent. The part on the E. bank
or city proper is thoroughly modern, with well-graded streets,
many of them bordered with trees. The most important public
institutions are the New Mexico insane asylum, the New Mexico
normal university (chartered 1893, opened 1898), the county
court house (in the old town), the academy of the Immaculate
Conception, conducted by the Sisters of Loretto, Saint Anthony's

French comedy.

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sanatorium, maintained by the Sisters of Charity, La Salle | and Les Corrivaux, both written apparently by 1562 but not
institute, conducted by the Christian Brothers, a Presbyterian published until 1573. Les Corrivaux is remarkable for its collo-
mission school and a Methodist manual training and commercial | quial prose dialogue, which foreshadows the excellence of later
school. There are railway machine-shops, and various manu-
factories. Las Vegas lies in the centre of an extensive grazing
region, has large stockyards and annually ships great quantities
of wool. Three of the local newspapers are published in Spanish.
Las Vegas was founded in 1835, under the government of the
Mexican Republic. On the 15th of August 1846, during the war
between Mexico and the United States, Gen. Stephen W. Kearny
entered the town, and its alcalde took the oath of allegiance to
the United States. There was but little progress or development
until the arrival of the railway in 1879. In 1888 the part east
of the river was incorporated as a town under the name of East
Las Vegas, and in 1896 it was chartered as the city of Las Vegas.
The old Las Vegas, west of the river, was incorporated as a town
in 1903.

LASWARI, one of the decisive battles of India. It was fought on the 1st of November 1803 between the British under General Lake, and the Mahratta troops of Sindia, consisting of the remnant of Perron's battalions. Laswari is a village in the state of Alwar some 80 m. S. of Delhi, and here Lake overtook the enemy and attacked them with his cavalry before the infantry arrived. The result was indecisive, but when the infantry came up there ensued one of the most evenly contested battles ever fought between the British and the natives of India, which ended in a complete victory for the British.

His brother, JACQUES DE LA TAILLE (1542-1562), composed a number of tragedies, of which La Mort de Daire and La Mort d'Alexandre (both published in 1573) are the chief. He is best known by his Manière de faire des vers en français comme en grec et en latin, an attempt to regulate French verse by quantity. He died of plague at the age of 20. His Poésies diverses were published in 1572.

I

LATAKIA (anc. Laodicea), the chief town of a sanjak in
the. Beirut vilayet of Syria, situated on the coast, opposite
the island of Cyprus. The oldest name of the town, according
to Philo Herennius, was Paula or Aevкn áкTη; it received
that of Laodicea (ad mare) from Seleucus Nicator, who re
founded it in honour of his mother as one of the four "sister"
cities of the Syrian Tetrapolis (Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea,
Laodicea). In the Roman period it was favoured by Caesar,
and took the name of Julia; and, though it suffered severely
when the fugitive Dolabella stood his last siege within its walls
(43 B.C.), Strabo describes it as a flourishing port, which supplied,
from the vineyards on the mountains, the greater part of the
wine imported to Alexandria. The town received the privileges
of an Italian colony from Severus, for taking his part against
Antioch in the struggle with Niger. Laodicea was the seat
of an ancient bishopric, and even had some claim to metro.
politan rights. At the time of the crusades, " Liche," as Jacques
de Vitry says it was popularly called, was a wealthy city. It
fell to Tancred with Antioch in 1102, and was recovered by
Saladin in 1188. A Christian settlement was afterwards per-
mitted to establish itself in the town, and to protect itself by
fortifications; but it was expelled by Sultan Kala'ün and the
defences destroyed. By the 16th century Laodicea had sunk
very low; the revival in the beginning of the 17th was due
to the new trade in tobacco. The town has several times been
almost destroyed by earthquakes-in 1170, 1287 and 1822.7
The people are chiefly employed in tobacco cultivation, silk
and oil culture, poultry rearing and the sponge fishery. There
is a large export of eggs to Alexandria; but the wealth of the
place depends most on the famous "Latakia" tobacco, grown
in the plain behind the town and on the Ansarich hills. There
are three main varieties, of which the worst is dark in colour
and strong in flavour; the best, grown in the districts of Diryus
and Amamarch, is light and aromatic, and is exported mainly
to Alexandria; but much goes also to Constantinople, Cyprus
and direct to Europe. After the construction of a road through
Jebel Ansarich to Hamah, Latakia drew a good deal of traffic
rom upper Syria; but the Hamah-Homs railway has now
diverted much of this again. The products of the surrounding
district, however, cause the town to increase steadily, and it
is a regular port of call for the main Levantine lines of steamers.
The only notable object of antiquity is a triumphal arch, prob-
ably of the early 3rd century, in the S.E. quarter of the modern
town. Latakia and its neighbourhood formerly produced a
very beautiful type of rug, examples of which are highly
prized.
(D. G. H.)
LATEEN (the Anglicized form of Fr. latine, i.e. voile latine,
Latin sail, so-called as the chief form of rig in the Mediterranean),
a certain kind of triangular sail, having a long yard by which
it is suspended to the mast. A "lateener" is a vessel rigged
with a lateen sail and yard. This rig was formerly much used,
and is still the typical sail of the felucca of the Mediterranean,
and dhow of the Arabian Sea.

LA TAILLE, JEAN DE (c. 1540-1608), French poet and
dramatist, was born at Bondaroy. He studied the humanities
in Paris under Muret, and law at Orleans under Anne de Bourg.
He began his career as a Huguenot, but afterwards adopted a
mild Catholicism. He was wounded at the battle of Arnay-le
Duc in 1570, and retired to his estate at Bondaroy, where he
wrote a political pamphlet entitled Histoire abrégée des singeries
de la ligue, often published with the Satire Menippée. His
chief poem is a satire on the follies of court life, Le Courtisan
retiré; he also wrote a political poem, Le Prince nécessaire.
But his fame rests on his achievements in drama. In 1572
appeared the tragedy of Saül le furieux, with a preface on L'Art de
la tragédie. Like Jodelle, Grévin, La Péruse and their followers,
he wrote, not for the general public to which the mysteries and
farces had addressed themselves, but for the limited audience
of a lettered aristocracy. He therefore depreciated the native
drama and insisted on the Senecan model. In his preface La
Taille enunciates the unities of place, time and action; he
maintains that each act should have a unity of its own and that
the scenes composing it should be continuous; he objects to
deaths on the stage on the ground that the representation is un-
convincing, and he requires as subject of the tragedy an incident
really terrible, developed, if possible, by elaborate intrigue.
He criticizes e.g. the subject of the sacrifice of Abraham, chosen by
Théodore de Bèze for his tragedy (1551), as unsuitable because
"pity and terror" are evoked from the spectators without real
cause. If in Saül le furieux he did not completely carry out his LA TÈNE (Lat. tenuis, shallow), the site of a lake-dwelling
own convictions he developed his principal character with great at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel, between Marin and Pré-
ability. A second tragedy, La Famine ou les Gabéonites (1573), fargier. According to some, it was originally a Helvetic op-
is inferior in construction, but is redeemed by the character of pidum; according to others, a Gallic commercial settlement
Rizpah. He was also the author of two comedies, Le Négromant | R. Forrer distinguishes an older semi-military, and a younger

LATACUNGA (LLACTACUNGA, or, in local parlance, TACUNGA), a plateau town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Léon, 46 m. S. of Quito, near the confluence of the Alagues and Cutuchi to form the Patate, the headstream of the Pastaza. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000, largely Indian. Latacunga stands on the old road between Guayaquil and Quito and has a station on the railway between those cities. It is 9141 ft. above sea-level; and its climate is cold and unpleasant, owing to the winds from the neighbouring snowclad heights, and the barren, pumicecovered table-land on which it stands. Cotopaxi is only 25 m. distant, and the town has suffered repeatedly from eruptions. Founded in 1534, it was four times destroyed by earthquakes between 1698 and 1798. The neighbouring ruins of an older native town are said to date from the Incas.

The works of Jean de la Taille were edited by René de Maulde (4 vols., 1878-1882). See also E. Faguet, La Tragédie française au XVI, siècle (1883),

was no longer any question. Another resolution, of importance for the history of the treatment of heresy, was the canon which decreed that armed force should be employed against the Cathari in southern France, that their goods were liable to confiscation and their persons to enslavement by the princes, and that all who took up weapons against them should receive a two years' remission of their penance and be placed-like the crusaders¬ under the direct protection of the church.

Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxii. 212 sq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 710-719 (ed. 2).

civilian settlement, the former a Gallic customs station, the | Roman clergy and populace, or of the imperial ratification, there latter, which may be compared to the canabae of the Roman camps, containing the booths and taverns used by soldiers and sailors. He also considers the older station to have been, not as usually supposed, Helvetic, but pre- or proto-Helvetic, the character of which changed with the advance of the Helvetii into Switzerland (c. 110-100 B.C.). La Tène has given its name to a period of culture (c. 500 B.C.-A.D. 100), the phase of the Iron age succeeding the Hallstatt phase, not as being its startingpoint, but because the finds are the best known of their kind. The latter are divided into early (c. 500-250 B.C.), middle (250100 B.C.) and late (100 B.C.-A.D. 100), and chiefly belong to the middle period. They are mostly of iron, and consist of swords, spear-heads, axes, scythes and knives, which exhibit a remarkable agreement with the description of the weapons of the southern Celts given by Diodorus Siculus. There are also brooches, bronze kettles, torques, small bronze ear-rings with little glass pearls of various colours, belt-hooks and pins for fastening articles of clothing. The La Tène culture made its way through France across to England, where it has received the name of "late Celtic "; a remarkable find has been made at Aylesford in Kent.

4. The fourth Lateran council (twelfth ecumenical), convened by Pope Innocent III. in 1215, was the most brilliant and the most numerously attended of all, and marks the culminating point of a pontificate which itself represents the zenith attained by the medieval papacy. Prelates assembled from every country in Christendom, and with them the deputies of numerous princes. The total included 412 bishops, with 800 priors and abbots, besides the representatives of absent prelates and a number of inferior clerics. The seventy decrees of the council begin with a confession of faith directed against the Cathari and Waldenses, which is significant if only for the mention of a transubstantiation of the elements in the Lord's Supper. A series of resolutions provided in detail for the organized suppression of heresy and for the institution of the episcopal inquisition (Canon 3). On every Christian, of either sex, arrived at years of discretion, the duty was imposed of confessing at least once annually and of receiving the Eucharist at least at Easter (Canon 21). Enactments were also passed touching procedure in the ecclesiastical courts, the creation of new monastic orders, appointments to offices in the church, marriage-law, conventual discipline, the veneration of relics, pilgrimages and intercourse with Jews and Saracens. Finally, a great crusade determined that the clergy should lay aside one-twentiethwas resolved upon, to defray the expenses of which it was

pope

the and the cardinals one-tenth-of their revenues for the next three years; while the crusaders were to be held free of all burdens during the period of their absence.

Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxii. 953 sq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 872-905 (ed. 2). See also INNOCENT III.

See F. Keller, Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, vi. (Eng. trans., 1878); V. Gross, La Tene un oppidum helvète (1886); E. Vouga, Les Helvètes à La Tène (1886); P. Reinecke, Zur Kenntnis der la Tène Denkmäler der Zone nordwärts der Alpen (Mainzer Festschrift, 1902); R. Forrer, Reallexikon der prähistorischen.. Altertümer (1907), where many illustrations are given.

LATERAN COUNCILS, the ecclesiastical councils or synods

held at Rome in the Lateran basilica which was dedicated to Christ under the title of Salvator, and further called the basilica of Constantine or the church of John the Baptist. Ranking as a papal cathedral, this became a much-favoured place of assembly for ecclesiastical councils both in antiquity (313, 487) and more especially during the middle ages. Among these numerous synods the most prominent are those which the tradition of the Roman Catholic church has classed as ecumenical councils.

1. The first Lateran council (the ninth ecumenical) was opened by Pope Calixtus II. on the 18th of March 1123; its primary object being to confirm the concordat of Worms, and so close the conflict on the question of investiture (q.v.). In addition to this, canons were enacted against simony and the marriage of priests; while resolutions were passed in favour of the crusaders, of pilgrims to Rome and in the interests of the truce of God. More than three hundred bishops are reported to have been present.

574

For the resolutions see Monumenta Germaniae, Leges, iv., i. 576 (1893); Mansi, Collectio Conciliorum, xxi. p. 281 sq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 378-384 (ed. 2, 1886).

2. The second Lateran, and tenth ecumenical, council was held by Pope Innocent II. in April 1139, and was attended by close on a thousand clerics. Its immediate task was to neutralize the after-effects of the schism, which had only been terminated in the previous year by the death of Anacletus II. (d. 25th January 1138). All consecrations received at his hands were declared invalid, his adherents were deposed, and King Roger of Sicily was excommunicated. Arnold of Brescia, too, was removed from office and banished from Italy.

Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxi., 525 sq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 438-445 (ed. 2).

3. At the third Lateran council (eleventh ecumenical), which met in March 1179 under Pope Alexander III., the clergy present again numbered about one thousand. The council formed a sequel to the peace of Venice (1177), which marked the close of the struggle between the papacy and the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa; its main object being to repair the direct or indirect injuries which the schism had inflicted on the life of the church and to display to Christendom the power of the see of Rome. Among the enactments of the council, the most important concerned the appointment to the papal throne (Canon 1), the electoral law of 1059 being supplemented by a further provision declaring a two-thirds majority to be requisite for the validity of the cardinals' choice. Of the participation of the

5. The fifth Lateran council (eighteenth ecumenical) was from the 3rd of May 1512 to the 16th of March 1517, and was the convened by Pope Julius II. and continued by Leo X. It met last great council anterior to the Reformation. The change in ecclesiastical and political dissensions within and without the the government of the church, the rival council of Pisa, the council, and the lack of disinterestedness on the part of its members, all combined to frustrate the hopes which its convocation had awakened. Its resolutions comprised the rejection of the pragmatic sanction, the proclamation of the pope's superiority over the council, and the renewal of the bull Unam sanctam of Boniface VIII. The theory that it is possible for a thing to be theologically true and philosophically false, and the doctrine of the mortality of the human soul, were both repudiated; while a three years' tithe on all church property was set apart to provide funds for a war against the Turks.

LEO X.

See Hardouin, Coll. Conc. ix. 1570 sq.; Hefele-Hergenrother, Conciliengeschichte, viii. 454 sq.; (1887). Cf. bibliography under (C. M.) LATERITE (Lat. later, a brick), in petrology, a red or brown superficial deposit of clay or earth which gathers on the surface of rocks and has been produced by their decomposition; it is very common in tropical regions. In consistency it is generally scft and friable, but hard masses, nodules and bands often occur in it. These are usually rich in iron. The superficial layers of laterite deposits are often indurated and smooth black or darkbrown crusts occur where the clays have long been exposed to a dry atmosphere; in other cases the soft clays are full of hard nodules, and in general the laterite is perforated by tubules, sometimes with veins of different composition and appearance from the main mass. The depth of the laterite beds varies up to 30 or 40 ft., the deeper layers often being soft when the surface is hard or stony; the transition to fresh, sound rock

| (in arid countries laterite is seldom seen, and where the rainfall is rocks containing aluminous minerals such as felspar, augite, hornmoderate the laterite is often calcareous); third, the presence of blende and mica. On pure limestones such as coral rocks and on quartzites laterite deposits do not originate except where the material has been transported.

Laterite occurs in practically every tropical region of the earth, and is very abundant in Ceylon, India, Burma, Central and West Africa, Central America, &c. It is especially well developed where the underlying rock is crystalline and felspathic (as granite gneiss, syenite and diorite), but occurs also on basalts in the Deccan and in other places, and is found even on mica schist, sandstone and quartzite, though in such cases it tends to be more sandy than argillaceous. Many varieties have been recognized. In India a calcareous laterite with large concretionary blocks of carbonate of lime is called kankar (kunkar), and has been much used in building bridges, &c., because it serves as a hydraulic cement. In some districts (e.g. W. Indies) similar types of laterite have been called "puzzuolana" and are also used as mortar and cement. Kankar is also known and worked in British East Africa. The clay called cabook in Ceylon is essentially a variety of laterite. Common laterite contains very little lime, and it seems that in districts which have an excessive rainfall that component may be dissolved out by percolating water, while kankar, or calcareous laterite, is formed in districts which have a smaller rainfall. In India also a distinction is made between high-level" and "low-level" laterites. The former are found at all elevations up to 5000 ft. and more, and are the products of the decomposition of rock in situ; they are often fine-grained and sometimes have a very well-marked concretionary structure. These laterites are subject to removal by running water, and are thus carried to lower grounds forming transported or "low-level" laterites. The finer particles tend to be carried away into the rivers, while the sand is left behind and with it much of the heavy iron oxides. In such situations the laterites are sandy and ferruginous, with a smaller proportion of clay, and are not intimately connected with the rocks on which they lie. On steep slopes laterite also may creep or slip when soaked with rain, and if exposed in sections on roadsides or river banks has a bedded appearance, the stratification being parallel to the surface of the ground.

Many hypotheses have been advanced to account for the essential difference between lateritization and the weathering processes exhibited by rocks in temperate and arctic climates. In the tropics the rank growth of vegetation produces large amounts of humus and carbonic acid which greatly promote rock decomposition; igneous and crystalline rocks of all kinds are deeply covered under rich dark soils, so that in tropical forests the underlying rocks are rarely to be seen. In the warm soil nitrification proceeds rapidly and bacteria of many kinds flourish. It has also been argued, that the frequent thunderstorms produce much nitric acid in the atmosphere and that this may be a cause of lateritization, but it is certainly not a necessary factor, as beds of laterite occur in oceanic islands lying in regions of the ocean where lightning is rarely seen. Sir Thomas Holland has brought forward the suggestion that the development of laterite may depend on the presence in the soil of bacteria which are able to decompose silicate of alumina into quartz and hydrates of alumina. The restricted distribution of laterite deposits might then be due to organisms. This very ingenious hypothesis has not yet received the the inhibiting effect of low temperatures on the reproduction of these experimental confirmation which seems necessary before it can be regarded as established. Malcolm Maclaren, rejecting the bacterial theory, directs special attention to the alternate saturation of the soil with rain water in the wet season and desiccation in the subsequent drought. The laterite beds are porous, in fact they are traversed by innumerable tubules which are often lined with deposits of iron oxide and aluminous minerals. We may be certain that, as in all soils during dry weather, there is an ascent of water by capillary action towards the surface, where it is gradually dissipated by evaporation. The soil water brings with it mineral matter in solution, which is deposited in the upper part of the beds. If the alumina be at one time in a soluble condition it will be drawn upwards and concentrated laterites, such as their porous and slaggy structure, which is often so surface. This process explains many peculiarities of marked that they have been mistaken for slaggy volcanic rocks. The concretionary structure is undoubtedly due to chemical rearrangements, among which the escape of water is probably one of the most important; and many writers have recognized that the undergo when dug up and exposed to the air, is the result of desiccahard ferruginous crust, like the induration which many soft laterites tion and exposure to the hot sun of tropical countries. The brecciated structure which many laterites show may be produced by great expansion of the mass consequent on absorption of water after heavy rains, followed by contraction during the subsequent dry season. Laterites are not of much economic use. They usually form a poor soil, full of hard concretionary lumps and very unfertile because Chemical and microscopical investigations show that laterite the potash and phosphates have been removed in solution, while only is not a clay like those which are so familiar in temperate regions; alumina, iron and silica are left behind. They are used as clays for it does not consist of hydrous silicate of alumina, but is a puddling, for making tiles, and as a mortar in rough work. Kankar has filled an important part as a cement in many large engineering mechanical mixture of fine grains of quartz with minute scales works in India. Where the iron concretions have been washed out of hydrates of alumina. The latter are easily soluble in acid by rains or by artificial treatment (often in the form of small shotwhile clay is not, and after treating laterite with acids the alu-like pellets) they serve as an iron ore in parts of India and Africa. mina and iron leave the silica as a residue in the form of quartz. Attempts are being made to utilize laterite as an ore of aluminium, The alumina seems to be combined with variable proportions of also deposits of manganese associated with some laterites in India a purpose for which some varieties scem well adapted. There are water, probably as the minerals hydrargillite, diaspore and which may ultimately be valuable as mineral ores. (J. S. F.). gibbsite, while the iron occurs as goethite, turgite, limonite, haematite. As already remarked, there is a tendency for the superficial layers to become hard, probably by a loss of the water contained in these aluminous minerals. These chemical changes may be the cause of the frequent concretionary structure and veining in the laterite. The great abundance of alumina in some varieties of laterite is a consequence of the removal of the fine particles of gibbsite, &c., from the quartz by the action of gentle currents of water. We may also point out the essential chemical similarity between laterite and the seams of bauxite which occur, for example, in the north of Ireland as reddish clays between flows of Tertiary basalt. The bauxite is rich in alumina combined with water, and is used as an ore of aluminium. It is often very ferruginous. Similar deposits occur at Vogelsberg in Germany, and we may infer that the bauxite beds are layers of laterite produced by sub-aerial decomposition in the same manner as the thick laterite deposits which are now in course of formation in the plateau basalts of the Deccan in India.

66

below may be very sudden. That laterite is merely rotted
crystalline rock is proved by its often preserving the structures,
veins and even the outlines of the minerals of the parent mass
below; the felspars and other components of granite gneiss
having evidently been converted in silu into a soft argillaceous
material.

The conditions under which laterite are formed include, first, a high seasonal temperature, for it occurs only in tropical districts and in plains or mountains up to about 5000 ft. in height; secondly, a heavy rainfall, with well-marked alternation of wet and dry seasons xvi s

LATH (O. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte), a thin flat strip of wood or other material used in building to form a base or groundwork for plaster, or for tiles, slates or other covering for roofs. Such strips of wood are employed to form lattice-work, or for the bars of venetian blinds or shutters. A "lattice" (O. Fr. lattis) is an interlaced structure of laths fastened together so as to form a screen with diamond-shaped or square interstices. Such a screen was used, as it still is in the East, as a shutter for a window admitting air rather than light; it was hence used of the window closed by such a screen. In modern usage the term is applied to a window with diamond-shaped panes set in lead-work. A window with a lattice painted red was formerly a common inn-sign (cf. Shakespeare, 2 Hen. IV. ii. 2. 86); frequently the window was dispensed with, and the sign remained painted on a board.

LATHE. (1) A mechanical appliance in which material is held and rotated against a tool for cutting, scraping, polishing or other purpose (see TOOLS). This word is of obscure origin. It may be a modified form of "lath," for in an early form of lathe the rotation is given by a treadle or spring lath attached

2a