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We advance this instance as evidence of the great aid to chemical discovery which exists in the new theory. Formerly the discovery of new compounds was chiefly the result of a groping in the dark. But we perceive here a case in which an organic family was seen to be incomplete without a substance whose necessary constitution only was known. The substance itself was soon found when chemists once knew where to seek it. Numerous compounds have been added to chemistry through this process, the theory first declaring what these substances should be, pointing out their analogies to existing substances, and the probable mode of grouping of their elements. Discovery was thus rendered comparatively easy when the goal lay in full view, and the avenue of approach was hedged in by the conditions necessary to be observed.

The theory of atomicity also enabled chemists to attempt explanations in a great number of cases which had before been mysteries. In the isomeric bodies we have instances of two bodies alike in composition, yet with great difference in properties. It was always supposed that a difference in the arrangement of the atoms caused this difference, but nothing definite was known. Now chemists can go further, and by tracing these substances through their processes of formation, often succeed in determining the relations between the atoms, and consequently the structure of the compound. They can, in fact, by different processes of formation, produce bodies alike in their atomic composition, but differing in the grouping of these atoms, and exhibiting different properties, thus producing new cases of isomerism.*

The modern views concerning molecules are based on the apparent fact that hydrogen atoms, when in their free state, combine in twos, forming elementary compounds. This relation has been traced to many of the elements and to compounds, and is supposed to be general, except in a few special cases. We have already named zinc, and several other elements as not conforming to it, their molecules seeming to

*Cooke, p. 99.

be monatomic. So in the cases of phosphorus, arsenic, and possibly one or two more elements, and in a number of compound bodies, the molecule appears to contain four atoms. This opinion is reached from the volume they occupy in the. state of vapor, but there has been broached another view of the case, which puts it in a different light. Many of these vapors need to be raised to a very high temperature before they sufficiently resemble the condition of a true gas to be compared with the gaseous elements.* In this case their molecular volume is often four, that of hydrogen being two, and the atom of hydrogen (the unit of measurement) being

one.

But has not the great heat to which they have been subjected produced a special effect upon them? May it not be possible that the compound has been separated into its constituents by the action of heat, the increase in volume being thus produced by a doubling of the number of molecules? Such a condition is possible, even though we may fail to trace it, from the fact that the substances, being intimately mixed, may recombine during their cooling, so that no trace of the separation remains. There are cases, however, where this recombination does not take place, and which, therefore, serve us as crucial tests of such a possible condition.

We have thus attempted to give, in as clear language as the case admitted, a synopsis of the progress of the science of theoretical chemistry, and an explanation of the present condition of the science. It may be seen, despite its wonderful progress, and the efforts of the many acute minds which have devoted themselves to it, still in a transition state. Theories have been evolved which beautifully explain many of the old mysteries of the science, and give it a unity and meaning such as it never before possessed. But we are far from understanding all these mysteries, and the rapid process of discovery is evolving new problems, which must be all answered before these scientific views can be considered stable. Yet the new theory has proved a powerful agent in

Cooke, p. 93.

such explanations, and is adapting itself to new discoveries with a readiness that adds much to its probability. We are as yet but on the threshold of the science, but we are vouchsafed glimpses into the temple which reveal to us hints of the chemistry of the future, when endless mysteries are to be unfolded, whose explanation we now see but "as through a glass, darkly."

ART. VIII.-1. The Horse and his Treatment in Different Ages, by Civilized and Uncivilized Man. London.

2. Memoire sur la possibilité de améliorer les chevaux en France. Paris.

THE Arabs have had an adage from time immemorial which runs thus: "The man who would wrong a horse that he is paid for feeding, and taking care of, would wrong his mother." There is no nation of ancient or modern times, claiming to be brave or generous, which has not entertained the same sentiment. Certainly no people have been more strongly imbued with it than our own, and none who know New Yorkers will deny that, whatever faults they may have, injustice to the dumb animal, especially to so noble an animal as the horse, is not one of them.

Yet in no other city in the world, equally enlightened, is the horse more cruelly wronged than he is in New York. What may well seem incredible is, that this is true altogether independently of the condition of our railroad horses, omnibus horses, hack horses, etc. The sufferings of all these have become proverbial, and most cheerfully would we do anything in our power to mitigate them. But those who keep horses merely to make money out of them are not likely to be much influenced by argument or reason, as to the treatment those animals should receive. In general such are equally proof against denunciation, invective and scorn.

Accordingly we, who are not prone to mere sentimentality, have never discussed in these pages the case of these unfortu nate animals. Seeing that we address few or none of those base enough to maltreat them we have confined our efforts in behalf of the sufferers to the newspapers, deeming it useless to do anything more in this journal, for the reason mentioned, than to appeal to the newspaper editors, while discussing kindred subjects, for their interposition in behalf of the wronged and oppressed animals. That few have exerted themselves more earnestly, in this way, than we have, for twenty years past, our articles published from time to time in the two leading dailies of America would amply provearticles written always anonymously, and without any other motive than to mitigate the sufferings of an animal which from the earliest records of history has been the faithful friend and companion of man--the sharer alike of his dangers and his pleasures characteristics in which the horse is rivalled among all the lower animals by the faithful dog alone.

Nor is our idea of the horse, or our wish to protect him from maltreatment, a mere abstraction. Both are the results of the personal observation and experience of a longer life than is allotted to most men. All would avail us nothing, however, did we address ourselves here to those who habitually wrong and ill-treat horses; we are quite aware that we might as well address ourselves to the Cherokees, to the Choctaws, or to any other tribe, however ignorant or ferocious. We address ourselves to the owners of horses, and not to those owners who keep them for mercenary purposes, and value them only in proportion as their blood and marrow promise to bring in a certain number of dollars. In short, we address ourselves to those who have both the intelligence and understanding to judge for themselves as to whether what we tell them be just, or unjust, true or false; that is, we address ourselves to the class of gentlemen who keep horses for the pleasures they afford themselves and their families, but who entrust the care of them to livery stables. Now, far be it from us to deny that there are honest men aniong the livery-stable keepers of New York; men who would be as incapable as any one of

VOL. XXVII.-NO. LIV.

10

wronging the horses left in their charge. Our own experience has proved to us, most satisfactorily, that there are several such. But it is not with these we have to do on the present occasion, except so far as we can hope to increase their number.

To many it will seem incredible that there are any such as those whose plans and practices we propose to sketch in miniature in this article; but those whose interests are directly concerned can have no difficulty, on a little reflection, and a slight exercise of the memory, in recognizing the facts. Those who think their interests are not concerned, and who are indifferent to the horse, are too apt to think also that it is none of their business what treatment the animal receives. Fortunately, there are but few of this class; at least there are but few of them among our readers; and it may be possible so to impress these few with the true characteristics of the horse, and the claims which he has on every enlightened member of the human family for protection, as to alter their views and feelings in this respect. Accordingly we will make the effort before we present even in outline the peculiar tribe of vampires which form our chief subject.

In the most ancient books extant-in sacred as well as profane history-the horse is intimately associated with man in all his struggles. Among the finest tombs found in Egypt are those of horses that had often saved their masters in battle. On the vestibule of one of the sepulchral chambers in the great Pyramid of Gaza is a bas-relief representing a horse with his breast pierced and his life-blood flowing, while his master leans over him, wringing his hands and bitterly weeping.

There never has been a great poet who has not paid one of his finest tributes to the beauty, strength, courage, intelligence, generosity, and fidelity of the horse. Many compare the book of Job to the Iliad in grandeur and sublimity; and in neither are there more sublime passages than those in which the noble qualities of the horse are portrayed. The most beautiful in Job and Homer are too familiar, from being so often quoted, to render it necessary for us to quote them here. The descriptions of Virgil, Dante, Tasso, and Milton are not so much quoted; but each has strong

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