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W.T.Ca.

W.T. T.-D.

WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S.

Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Barnacle.
Author of " Crustacea "in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.

SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc. LL.D.,

PH.D., F.L.S.

Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bentham, George.
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906.
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. Editor of Flora Capenses and Flora of Tropical

Africa.

WILLIAM WALLACE, M.A.

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER (d. 1906).

Author of Basque Legends; &c.

WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.

W.W.

W. We.

W. Wr.

W.R.S.
W.W.R.*

W. ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM Robertson.

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Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congre- Bacon, Leonard.
gational Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin; &c.

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Benedict XI., XII., XIII., XIV.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.

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Ballet.

Baiting.

Ballot.

Beaton.

Balneotherapeutics.

Beaufort: Family.

Bamboo.

Beaufort, Henry.

Ban.

Beaumarchais.

Banana.

Beaumont: Family.

Bank-notes.

Becher.

bury).

Bentley, Richard.

Benton.

Benzene.

Benzaldehyde.

Benzoic Acid.

Bichromates and Chromates.

Bidder.

Bigamy.

Bijapur.

Bikanir.

Bilaspur.

Barbados.

Barbarossa.

Barbed Wire.

Barcelona.

Barclay, Alexander.

Barère de Vieuzac.
Barium.

Barlaam and Josaphat.
Barley.

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell.

Bedford, Earls and Dukes of.

Bedfordshire.

Bedouins.

Beecher, Lyman.

Behar.

Beheading.

Belfast: Ireland.

Béjart.

Berar.

Berbers.

Berengarius.

Beresford, Lord Charles.
Beresford, Viscount.

Bergen.

Beri-Beri.

Berkshire.

Berlioz.

Bermondsey.

Bilbao.

Billiards.

Binomial.

Birch.

Birkenhead.

Birmingham.

Birney, James G.

Biron, Armand de Gontaut,

Birth.

Biscay (Vizcaya).

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME III

AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederösterreich or Österreich unter der Enns, "Austria below the river Enns "), an archduchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, N. by Bohemia and Moravia, W. by Bohemia and Upper Austria, and S. by Styria. It has an area of 7654 sq. m. and is divided into two parts by the Danube, which enters at its most westerly point, and leaves it at its eastern extremity, near Pressburg. North of this line is the low hilly country, known as the Waldviertel, which lies at the foot and forms the continuation of the Bohemian and Moravian plateau. Towards the W. it attains in the Weinsberger Wald, of which the highest point is the Peilstein, an altitude of 3478 ft., and descends towards the valley of the Danube through the Gföhler Wald (2368 ft.) and the Manhartsgebirge (1758 ft.). Its most south-easterly offshoots are formed by the Bisamberg (1180 ft.), near Vienna, just opposite the Kahlenberg. The southern division of the province is, in the main, mountainous and hilly, and is occupied by the Lower Austrian Alps and their offshoots. The principal groups are: the Voralpe (5802 ft.), the Darrenstein (6156 ft.), the Ötscher (6205 ft.), the Raxalpe (6589 ft.) and the Schneeberg (6806 ft.), which is the highest summit in the whole province. To the E. of the famous ridge of Semmering are the groups of the Wechsel (5700 ft.) and the Leithagebirge (1674 ft.). The offshoots of the Alpine group are formed by the Wiener Wald, which attains an altitude of 2929 ft. in the Schöpfl and ends N.W. of Vienna in the Kahlenberg (1404 ft.) and Leopoldsberg (1380 ft.).

Lower Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which with the exception of the Lainsitz, which is a tributary of the Moldau, receives all the other rivers of the province. Its principal affluents on the right are: the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Pielach, Traisen, Wien, Schwechat, Fischa and Leitha; on the left the Isper, Krems, Kamp, Göllersau and the March. Besides the

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Danube, only the Enns and the March are navigable rivers. Amongst the small Alpine lakes, the Erlaufsee and the Lunzer See are worth mentioning. Of its mineral springs, the best known are the sulphur springs of Baden, the iodine springs of Deutsch-Altenburg, the iron springs of Pyrawarth, and the thermal springs of Vöslau. In general the climate, which varies with the configuration of the surface, is moderate and healthy, although subject to rapid changes of temperature. Although 43-4% of the total area is arable land, the soil is only of moderate fertility and does not satisfy the wants of this thickly-populated province. Woods occupy 34.2%, gardens and meadows 13.1% and pastures 3.2%. Vineyards occupy 2% of the total area and produce a good wine, specially those on the sunny slopes of the Wiener Wald. Cattle-rearing is not well developed, but game and fish are plentiful. Mining is only of slight importance, small quantities of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Mühldorf. From an industrial point of view, Lower Austria stands, together with Bohemia and Moravia, in the front rank amongst the Austrian provinces. The centre of its great industrial activity is the capital, Vienna (q.v.); but in the region of the Wiener Wald up to the Semmering, owing to its many waters, which can be transformed into motive power, many factories are spread. The principal industries are, the metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches, milling, brewing and chemicals; paper, leather and silk; cloth, objets de luxe and millinery; physical and musical instruments; sugar, tobacco factories and foodstuffs. The very extensive commerce of the province has also its centre in Vienna. The population of Lower Austria in 1900 was 3,100,493, which corresponds to 405 inhabitants per sq. m. It is, therefore, the most densely populated province of Austria. According to the language in common use, 95% of the population

20

was German, 4.66 % was Czech, and the remainder was composed of the province. The principal mineral'wealth of Upper Austria of Poles, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croatians and Italians. According is salt, of which it extracts nearly 50% of the total Austrian to religion 92.47 % of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics; production. Other important products are lignite, gypsum and 5.07% were Jews; 2·11 % were Protestants and the remainder a variety of valuable stones and clays. There are about thirty belonged to the Greek church. In the matter of education, mineral springs, the best known being the salt baths of Ischl Lower Austria is one of the most advanced provinces of Austria, and the iodine waters at Hall. The principal industries are the and 99.8% of the children of school-going age attended school iron and metal manufactures, chiefly centred at Steyr. Next in regularly in 1900. The local diet is composed of 78 members, importance are the machine, linen, cotton and paper manuof which the archbishop of Vienna, the bishop of St Pölten and factures, the milling, brewing and distilling industries and the rector of the Vienna University are members ex officio. shipbuilding. The principal articles of export are salt, stone, Lower Austria sends 64 members to the Imperial Reichsrat at timber, live-stock, woollen and iron wares and paper. Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided See Edlbacher, Landeskunde von Oberösterreich (Linz, 2nd ed., into 22 districts and three towns with autonomous munici-1883): Vansca, op. cit. in the preceding article. palities: Vienna (1,662,269), the capital (since 1905 including AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY Floridsdorf, 36,599), Wiener Neustadt (28,438) and Waidhofen (Ger. Österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie or Österreichischon the Ybbs (4447). Other principal towns are: Baden(12,447), ungarisches Reich), the official name of a country situated in Bruck on the Leitha (5134), Schwechat (8241), Korneuburg central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by (8298), Stokerau (10,213), Krems (12,657), Mödling (15,304), Rumania, Servia, Turkey and Montenegro, W. by the Adriatic Reichenau (7457), Neunkirchen (10,831), St Pölten (14,510) Sea, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the German Empire, and Klosterneuburg (11,595).

and N. by the German Empire and Russia. It occupies about The original archduchy, which included Upper Austria, is the the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905) nucleus of the Austrian empire, and the oldest possession of of 239,977 sq. m. The monarchy consists of two independent the house of Habsburg in its present dominions.

states: the kingdoms and lands represented in the council of See F. Umlauft, Das Erzherzoglum Österreich unter der Enns, the empire (Reichsral), unofficially called Austria (2.0.) or vol. i. of the collection Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in Wort und Cisleithania; and the lands of St Stephen's Crown,” unMonarchie in Wort und Bild, vol. 4 (Vienna, 1886-1902, 24 vols.); - officially called Hungary (9.0.) or Transleithania. It received M. Vansca, Gesch. Nieder- u. Ober-Österreichs (in Heeren's Slaalen: its actual name by the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. gesch., Gotha, 1905).

of the 14th of November 1868, replacing the name of the Austrian AUSTRIĄ, UPPER (Ger. Oberösterreich or Österreich ob der Empire under which the dominions under his sceptre were Enns, “ Austria above the river Enns "), an archduchy and formerly known. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is very crown-land of Austria, bounded N. by Bohemia, W. by Bavaria, often called unofficially the Dual Monarchy. It had in 1901 a S. by Salzburg and Styria, and E. by Lower Austria. It has an population of 45,405,267 inhabitants, comprising therefore area of 4631 sq. m. Upper Austria is divided by the Danube within its borders, about one-eighth of the total population of into two unequal parts. Its smaller northern part is a prolonga- Europe. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 the principalities of tion of the southern angle of the Bohemian forest and contains Bosnia and Herzegovina with an area of 19,702 sq. m., and a as culminating points the Plöcklstein (4510 ft.) and the Sternstein population (1895) of 1,591,036 inhabitants, owning Turkey as (3690 ft.). The southern part belongs to the region of the suzerain, were placed under the administration of AustriaEastern Alps, containing the Salzkammergut and Upper Austrian Hungary, and their annexation in 1908 was recognized by the Alps, which are found principally in the district of Salzkammergut Powers in 1909, so that they became part of the dominions (9.0.). To the north of these mountains, stretching towards the of the monarchy. Danube, is the Alpine foothill region, composed partly of terraces Government. The present constitution of the Austro-Hungarian and partly of swelling undulations, of which the most important monarchy (see AUSTRIA) is based on the Pragmatic Sanction of is the Hausruckwald. This is a wooded chain of mountains, the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the 19th of April with many branches, rich in brown coal and culminating in the 1713, whereby the succession to the throne is settled in the Göblberg (2950 ft.). Upper Austria belongs to the watershed dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, descending by right of primoof the Danube, which flows through it from west to east, and geniture and lineal succession to male heirs, and, in case of their receives here on the right the Inn with the Salzach, the Traun, extinction, to the female line, and whereby the indissolubility the Enns with the Steyr and on its left the Great and Little Mühl and indivisibility of the monarchy are determined; is based, rivers. The Schwarzenberg canal between the Great Mühl and further, on the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the the Moldau establishes a direct navigable route between the 20th of October 1860, whereby the constitutional form of Danube and the Elbe. The climate of Upper Austria, which government is introduced; and, lastly, on the so-called Ausgleich varies according to the altitude, is on the whole moderate; it is or “Compromise," concluded on the 8th of February 1867, somewhat severe in the north, but is mild in Salzkammergut. whereby the relations between Austria and Hungary were The population of the duchy in 1900 was 809,918, which is regulated. equivalent to 174-8 inhabitants per sq. m. It has the greatest The two separate states-Austria and Hungary--are comdensity of population of any of the Alpine provinces. The pletely independent of each other, and each has its own parliainhabitants are almost exclusively of German stock and Roman ment and its own government. The unity of the monarchy is Catholics. For administrative purposes, Upper Austria is expressed in the common head of the state, who bears the title divided into two autonomous municipalities, Linz (58,778) the Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary, and in the capital, and Steyr (17,592) and 12 districts. Other principal common administration of a series of affairs, which affect both towns are Wels (12,187), Ischl (9646) and Gmunden (7126). The halves of the Dual Monarchy. These are: (1) foreign affairs, local diet, of which the bishop of Linz is a member ex officio, is including diplomatic and consular representation abroad; composed of 50 members and the duchy sends 22 members to (2) the army, including the navy, but excluding the annual the Reichsrat at Vienna. The soil in the valleys and on the voting of recruits, and the special army of each state; (3) finance lower slopes of the hills is fertile, indeed 35.08% of the whole in so far as it concerns joint expenditure. area is arable. Agriculture is well developed and relatively For the administration of these common affairs there are large quantities of the principal cereals are produced. Upper three joint ministries: the ministry of foreign affairs and of the Austria has the largest proportion of meadows in all Austria, imperial and royal house, the ministry of war, and the ministry 18-54%, while 2:49% is lowland and Alpine pasturage. Of the of finance. It must be noted that the authority of the joint remainder, woods occupy 34-02 %, gardens 1.99 % and 4.93 % is ministers is restricted to common affairs, and that they are unproductive. Cattle-breeding is also in a very advanced stage not allowed to direct or exercise any influencé on affairs of governand together with the timber-trade forms a considerable resource I ment affecting separately one of the halves of the monarchy.

The

Debt.-Besides the debts of each state of the Dual Monarchy, there is a general debt, which is borne jointly by Austria and Hungary. The following table gives in millions sterling the amount of the general debt for the years 1875-1905:

1875.

232:41

1885.

1895.

1900.

1905.

224.31

231.02 229.67 226.81

The minister of foreign affairs conducts the international relations of the Dual Monarchy, and can conclude international treaties. But commercial treaties, and such state treaties as impose burdens on the state, or parts of the state, or involve a change of territory, require the parliamentary assent of both states. The minister of war is the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honveds, which are committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the Delegations. The constitutional right of voting money supreme command of the army is vested in the monarch, who applicable to the common affairs and of its political control has the power to take all measures regarding the whole army: is exercised by the Delegations, which consist each of sixty It follows, therefore, that the total armed power of the Dual members, chosen for one year, one-third of them by the Austrian Monarchy forms a whole under the supreme command of the sovereign. The minister of finance has charge of the finances of Herrenhaus (Upper House) and the Hungarian Table of Magnates common affairs, prepares the joint budget, and administers the (Upper House), and two-thirds of them by the Austrian and the Hungarian Houses of Representatives. The delegations are joint state debt. (Till 1909 the provinces of Bosnia and Herze- annually summoned by the monarch alternately to Vienna and govina were also administered by the joint minister of finance, to Budapest. Each delegation has its separate sittings, both excepting matters exclusively dependent on the minister of war.) alike public. Their decisions are reciprocally communicated For the control of the common finances, there is appointed a in writing, and, in case of non-agreement, their deliberations joint supreme court of accounts, which audits the accounts of are renewed. Should three such interchanges be made without the joint ministries. agreement, a common plenary sitting is held of an equal number of both delegations; and these collectively, without discussion, decide the question by common vote. The common decisions of both houses require for their validity the sanction of the monarch. Each delegation has the right to formulate resolutions independently, and to call to account and arraign the common ministers. In the exercise of their office the members of both delegations are irresponsible, enjoying constitutional immunity. Army. The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is similar in both states, and rests since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force is composed of the common army (K. und K.); the special armies, namely the Austrian (K.K.) Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honveds, which are separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-inmass. As stated above, the common army stands under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies are under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army is fixed by the military bills voted by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, and is generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men are annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honveds. The term of service is 2 years (3 years in the cavalry) with the colours, 7 or 8 in the reserve and 2 in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service is spent in various special

Budget-Side by side with the budget of each state of the Dual Monarchy, there is a common budget, which comprises the expenditure necessary for the common affairs, namely for the conduct of foreign affairs, for the army, and for the ministry of finance. revenues of the joint budget consist of the revenues of the joint ministries, the net proceeds of the customs, and the quota, or the proportional contributions of the two states. This quota is fixed for a period of years, and generally coincides with the duration of the customs and commercial treaty. Until 1897 Austria contribated 70%. and Hungary 30% of the joint expenditure, remaining after deduction of the common revenue. It was then decided that from 1897 to July 1907 the quota should be 661 for Austria, and 13 for Hungary. In 1907 Hungary's contribution was raised to 34% Of the total charges 2 % is first of all debited to Hungary on account of the incorporation with this state of the former military

frontier.

The Budget estimates for the common administration were as fellows in 1905:—

Revenue

Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War

Ministry of Finance

Board of Control

The Customs

Proportional contributions.

£21,167

305.907
4.870
18

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4.780,000 15.650,448 £20,762.410 £485.480 12,679,160 2,306,100

Ministry of Finance

Board of Control

Extraordinary Military Expenditure

Extraordinary Military Expenditure in Bosnia

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177,000 13.250 4.785.500

315.920

£20,762.410 The following table gives in thousands sterling the joint budget for the years 1875-1995:

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Supreme Court of Accounts

Expenditure.

reserves.

1905.
493-8

For the military and administrative service of the army the Dual Monarchy is divided into 16 military territorial districts (15 of which correspond to the 15 army corps) and 108 supplementary districts (105 for the army, and 3 for the navy). In 1902, since which year no material change was made in the formal organization of the army, there were 5 cavalry divisions and 31 infantry divisions, formed in 15 army corps, which are located as follows:-I. Cracow, II. Vienna, III. Graz, IV. Budapest, V. Pressburg, VI. Kaschau, VII. Temesvár, VIII. Prague. IX. Josefstadt, X. Przemysl, XI. Lemberg, XII. Herrmannstadt, XIII. Agram, XIV. Innsbruck, XV. Serajewo. In addition there is the military district of Zara. The usual strength of the corps is, 2 infantry divisions (4 brigades, 8 or 9 regiments, 32 or 36 battalions), I cavalry brigade (18 squadrons), and artillery brigade (16-18 batteries or 128-144 field-guns), besides technical and departmental units and in some cases fortress artillery regiments. The infantry is organized into line regiments, Jäger and Tirolese regiments, the cavalry into dragoons, lancers, Uhlans and hussars, the artillery into regiments. The Austrian Landwehr (which retains the old designation K.K., formerly

18,087.7
177.1
13.3

20.430.3

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433-4 13,887.5

Ministry of Finance

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12.5 14.508-4

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997:4 8136.7

402.2

4476

9971.I

Total

9566-1

10,631.5

8316-4
13.053.1 14,508.4

20.430.3

Proportional Contributions

331-9 4799-7 15.650-4

4

applied to the Austrian regular army) is organized in 8 divisions of Landwehr or Honveds varying strength, the "Royal Hungarian

in 7 divisions, both Austrian and Hungarian Landwehr having in addition cavalry (Uhlans and hussars) and artillery. It is probable that a Landwehr or Honveds division will, in war, form part of each army corps except in the case of the Vienna corps, which has 3 divisions in peace. The remaining men of military age (up to 42)

as usual form the Landsturm. It is to be noted that this Landsturm comprises many men who would elsewhere be classed as Landwehr.

The strength of the Austro-Hungarian army on a peace footing was as follows in 1905:

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The troops stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1905 (376 officers and 6372 men) are included in the total for the common

army.

The peace strength of the active army in combatants is thus about 350,000 officers and men, inclusive of the two Landwehrs and of the Austrian " K.K." guards, the Hungarian crown guards, the gendarmerie, &c. The numbers of the Landsturm and the war strength of the whole armed forces are not published. It is estimated that the first line army in war would consist of 460,000 infantry, 49,000 cavalry, 78,000 artillery, 21,000 engineers, &c., beside train and noncombatant soldiers. The Landwehr and Honved would yield 219,000 infantry and 18,000 cavalry, and other reserves 223,000 men. These figures give an approximate total strength of 1,147,000, not inclusive of Landsturm.

Fortifications.-The principal fortifications in Austria-Hungary are: Cracow and Przemysl in Galicia; Komárom, the centre of the inland fortifications, Pétervárad, Ó-Arad and Temesvár in Hungary: Serajewo, Mostar and Bilek in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Alpine frontiers, especially those in Tirol, have numerous fortifications, whose centre is formed by Trent and Franzensfeste; while all the military roads leading into Carinthia have been provided with strong defensive works, as at Malborgeth, Predil Pass, &c. The two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, are not fortified. On the Adriatic coast, the naval harbour of Pola is strongly fortified with sea and land defences; then come Trieste, and several places in Dalmatia, notably Zara and Cattaro.

It

Navy. The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defence force, and includes also a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It is administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. consisted in 1905 of 9 modern battleships, 3 armoured cruisers, 5 cruisers, 4 torpedo gunboats, 20 destroyers and 26 torpedo boats. There was in hand at the same time a naval programme to build 12 armourclads, 5 second-class cruisers, 6 third-class cruisers, and a number of torpedo boats. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola, which is the principal naval arsenal and harbour of Austria; while another great naval station is Trieste.

Articles.

Raw material (including
articles of food; raw
material for agriculture
and industry; and mining
and smelting products)
Semi-manufactured goods.
Manufactured goods.

Articles.

Value in Millions Sterling.

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12.4 12-6

35:3

32.8 37-2

38-3

Raw material (as above)
Semi-manufactured goods
Manufactured goods.

The most important place of derivation and of destination for the Austro-Hungarian trade is the German empire with about 40% of the imports, and about 60 % of the exports. Next in importance comes Great Britain, afterwards India, Italy, the United States of America, Russia, France, Switzerland, Rumania, the Balkan states and South America in about the order named. The principal articles of import are cotton and cotton goods, wool and woollen goods, silk and silk goods, coffee, tobacco and metals. The principal articles export are wood, sugar, cattle, glass and glassware, iron and irc ware, eggs, cereals, millinery, fancy goods, earthenware and potter and leather goods.

The Austro-Hungarian Bank.-Common to the two states of t monarchy is the "Austro-Hungarian Bank," which possesses a leg exclusive right to the issue of bank-notes. It was founded in 181 and had the title of the Austrian National Bank until 1878, when In virtue of the new bank statute of t received its actual name. year 1899 the bank is a joint-stock company, with a stock 18,780,000. The bank's notes of issue must be covered to the exter of two-fifths by legal specie (gold and current silver) in reserve the rest of the paper circulation, according to bark usage. Th state, under certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits the bank. The management of the bank and the supervision exercise over it by the state are established on a footing of equality, bot states having each the same influence. The accounts of the bank a the end of 1900 were as follows: capital, £8,750,000; reserve fund £428.250; note circulation, £62,251,000; cash, £50.754,000. 1907 the reserve fund was £548,041; note circulation, £84.501,000 cash, £60,036,625. The charter of the bank, which expired in 1897. was renewed until the end of 1910. In the Hungarian ministerial conspicuous part, the more extreme members of the Independence crisis of 1909 the question of the renewal of the charter played a party demanding the establishment of separate banks for Austria and Hungary with, at most, common superintendence (see History, (0. BR.) below).

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Trade. On the basis of the customs and commercial agreement between Austria and Hungary, concluded in 1867 and renewable every ten years, the following affairs, in addition to the common affairs of the monarchy, are in both states treated according to the same principles:-Commercial affairs, including customs legislation; legislation on the duties closely connected with industrial production on beer, brandy, sugar and mineral oils; determination of legal tender and coinage, as also of the principles regulating the AustroHungarian Bank; ordinances in respect of such railways as affect In conformity with the customs and the interests of both states. commercial compact between the two states, renewed in 1899, the monarchy constitutes one identical customs and commercial territory, inclusive of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the principality

of Liechtenstein.

The foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is shown in the following table:

HISTORY

I. The Whole Monarchy.

Austria."

The empire of Austria, as the official designation of the territories ruled by the Habsburg monarchy, dates back only to 1804, when Francis II., the last of the Holy Roman The title emperors, proclaimed himself emperor of Austria as "Emperor Francis I. His motive in doing so was to guard of against the great house of Habsburg being relegated to a position inferior to the parvenus Bonapartes, in the event of the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, or of the possible election of Napoleon as his own successor on the throne of Charlemagne. The title emperor of Austria, then, replaced that of "Imperator Romanorum semper Augustus " when the Holy Empire came to an end in 1806. From the first, however, it was no more than a title, which represented but ill the actual relation of the Habsburg sovereigns to their several states.

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