substances as sugar, it is not uncommon to line the bag with paper, which excludes foreign matter, and minimizes the loss. Although there are large quantities of seamless bags woven in the loom, the greater part of the cloth is woven in the ordinary way. It is then cut up into the required sizes by hand and by special machines, and afterwards sewn by one of the chain-stitch or straight-stitch bag sewing-machines.

BAGHAL, a small native state in the Punjab, India. It is one of the group known as the Simla Hill states, and has an area of 124 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,720, showing an increase of 5% in the decade; a revenue £3300.

BAGHERIA, a town of the province of Palermo, Sicily, 8 m. by rail E. by S. of Palermo. Pop. (1901) 18,218. It contains many villas of the aristocracy of Palermo, the majority of which were erected in the 18th century, but have now fallen into decay. BAGILLT, a town of Flintshire, North Wales, 14 m. from Chester, on the London & North Western railway, in the ancient parish of Holywell. Pop. (1901) 2637. Its importance is due to its zinc, lead, iron, alkali and kindred works, and its collieries. Above Bagillt is Bryn Dychwelwch, "Hill of Retreat," so called from the retreat effected by Owen Gwynedd, when pursued by Henry II., with superior numbers. Near is Mostyn Hall, dating from the time of Henry VI., the seat of one of the oldest Welsh families. Here are antiquities and MSS. (old British history and Welsh, brought from Gloddaeth), a harp dated 1568, torques (torchau), &c. Henry VII., then earl of Richmond, is said to have been concealed here in the reign of Richard III., when the lord of Mostyn was Richard ap Howel.

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(q.v.) forms the western boundary. Numerous tributaries of the Shari flow through the country, but much of the water is absorbed by swamps and sand-obstructed channels, and seasons of drought are recurrent. The southern part of the country is the most fertile. Among the trees the acacia and the dum-palm are common. Various kinds of rubber vine are found. The fauna includes the elephant, hippopotamus, lion and several species of antelope. Ants are very numerous. Millet and sesame are the principal grains cultivated. Rice grows wild, and several kinds of Poa grass are used as food by the natives. Cotton and indigo are grown to a considerable extent, especially by Bornu immigrants. The capital is Chekna, on a tributary of the Shari, the former capital, Massenia, having been destroyed in 1898. Fort Lamy at the confluence of the Logone and Shari, and Fort de Cointet on the middle Shari, are French posts round which towns have grown. Trade is chiefly with Yola, a town on the Benue in British Nigeria, and with Khartum via Wadai. There is also an ancient caravan route which runs through Kanem and across the Sahara to Tripoli.

The

The population of Bagirmi is mixed. Negroid peoples predominate, but there are many pastoral Fula and Arabs. The Bagirmese proper are a vigorous, well-formed race of NegroidArab blood, who, according to their own traditions, came from the eastward several centuries ago, a tradition borne out by their language; which resembles those spoken on the White Nile. On their arrival they appear to have taken the place of the Bulala dynasty. They subdued the Fula and Arabs already settled in the district, and after being converted to Islam under Abdullah, their fourth king (about 1600), they extended their authority over a large number of tribes living to the south and east. most important of these tribes are the Saras, Gaberi, Somrai, Gulla, Nduka, Nuba and Sokoro. These pagan tribes were repeatedly raided by the Bagirmese for slaves. Most of them are of a primitive type and appear to be dying out. The Saras are remarkable for their herculean stature, and are one of the most promising of African races. Tree worship is prevalent among the Somrai and the Gaberi. All the tribes believe in a supreme being whose voice is the thunder. Polygamy is general in upper Bagirmi, where some traces of a matriarchal stage of society linger, one small state being called Beled-el-Mra, "Women's Land," because its ruler is always a queen.

BAGIMOND'S ROLL. In 1274 the council of Lyons imposed a tax of a tenth part of all church revenues during the six following years for the relief of the Holy Land. In Scotland Pope Gregory X. entrusted the collection of this tax to Master Boiamund (better known as Bagimund) de Vitia, a canon of Asti, whose roll of valuation formed the basis of ecclesiastical taxation for some centuries. Boiamund proposed to assess the tax, not according to the old conventional valuation but on the true value of the benefices at the time of assessment. The clergy of Scotland cbjected to this innovation, and, having held a council at Perth in August 1275, prevailed upon Boiamund to return to Rome for the purpose of persuading the pope to accept the older method of taxation. The pope insisted upon the tax being collected according to the true value, and Boiamund returned to Scotland to superintend its collection. A fragment of Bagimond's Roll in something very like its original form is preserved at Durham, and has been printed by James Raine in his Priory of Coldingham (Publications of the Surtees Society, vol. xii.). It gives the real values in one column and tenth parts in another column of each of the benefices in the archdeaconry of Lothian. The actual taxation to which this fragment refers was not the tenth collected by Boiamund but the tenth of all ecclesiastical property in Eng-pedition led thither through Bagirmi met with disaster, its leader, land, Scotland, Wales and Ireland granted by Pope Nicholas IV. to Edward I. of England in the year 1288. The fragment should therefore be regarded as supplementary to the Taxatio Ecclesiastica Angliae et Walliae printed by the Record Commissioners in 1802. Although no contemporary copy of Bagimond's Roll is known to exist, at least three documents give particulars of the taxation of the Church of Scotland in the 16th century, which are based upon the original roll.

See Statuta Ecclesiae Scoticanae (Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1866).

BAGIRMI, a country of north-central Africa, lying S.E. of Lake Chad and forming part of the Chad circumscription of French Congo. It extends some 240 m. north to south and has a breadth of about 150 m., with an area of 20,000 sq. m. The population in 1903 was estimated at 100,000, having been greatly rerluced as the result of wars and slave-raiding. By including districts S. and S. E. occupied by former vassal states, the area and population of Bagirmi would be more than doubled. The surface of the country, which lies about 1000 ft. above sea-level, is almost flat with a very slight inclination N. to Lake Chad. It forms part of what seems to be the basin of an immense lake, of hich Chad is the remnant. The soil is clay. The river Shari

Bagirmi was made known to Europe by the travels of Dixon Denham (1823), Heinrich Barth (1852), who was imprisoned by the Bagirmese for some time, Gustav Nachtigal (1872), and P. Matteucci and A. M. Massari (1881). The country in 1871 had been conquered by the sultan of Wadai, and about 1890 was over-run by Rabah Zobeir (q.v.) who subsequently removed farther west to Bornu. About this time French interest in the countries surrounding Lake Chad was aroused. The first ex

Paul Crampel, being killed by order of Rabah. Subsequent missions were more fortunate, and in 1897 Emile Gentil, the French commissioner for the district, concluded a treaty with the sultan of Bagirmi, placing his country under French protection. A resident was left at the capital, Massenia, but on Gentil's withdrawal Rabah descended from Bornu and forced sultan and resident to flce. It was not until after the death of Rabah in battle and the rout of his sons (1901) that French authority was firmly established. Kanem, a country north of Bagirmi and subject in turn to it and to Wadai, was at the same time brought under French control. So far as its European rivals are concerned, the French right to these regions is based on the Franco-German convention of the 15th of March, 1894 and the Anglo-French declaration of the 21st of March 1899.

See H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (London, 1857-1858); G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (Berlin, 1879-1889); E. Gentil, La Chute de l'Empire de Rabah (Paris, 1902). Also FRENCH CONGO.

BAGNACAVALLO, BARTOLOMMEO (1484-1542), Italian painter. His real name was RAMENGHI, but he received the cognomen Bagnacavallo from the little village where he was born. He studied first under Francia, and then proceeded to

Rome, where he became a pupil of Raphael. While studying Rhodian condottiere Mentor, and with his help succeeded in under him he worked along with many others at the decoration subjecting Egypt again to the Persian empire (probably 342 B.C.). of the gallery in the Vatican, though it is not known what portions Mentor became general of the maritime provinces, suppressed are his work. On his return to Bologna he quickly took the the rebels, and sent Greek mercenaries to the king, while Bagoas leading place as an artist, and to him were due the great improve-administered the upper satrapies and gained such power that he ments in the general style of what has been called the Bolognese was the real master of the kingdom (Diod. xvi. 5o; cf. Didymus, school. His works were considered to be inferior in point of Comm. in Demosth. Phil. vi. 5). He became very wealthy by design to some other productions of the school of Raphael, confiscating the sacred writings of the Egyptian temples and but they were distinguished by rich colouring and graceful giving them back to the priests for large bribes (Diod. xvi. 51). delineation. They were highly esteemed by Guido Reni and the When the high priest of Jerusalem, Jesus, murdered his brother Carracci, who studied them carefully and in some points imitated Johannes in the temple, Bagoas (who had supported Johannes) them. The best specimens of Bagnacavallo's works, the “ Dispute put a new tax on the Jews and entered the temple, saying that of St Augustine," and a " Madonna and Child," are at Bologna. he was purer than the murderer who performed the priestly

BAGNÈRES-DE-BIGORRE, a town of south-western France, office (Joseph. Ant. xi. 7.1). In 338 Bagoas killed the king and all capital of an arrondissement in the department of Hautes- his sons but the youngest, Arses (9.0.), whom he raised to the Pyrénées, 13 m. S.S.E. of Tarbes on a branch line of the Southern throne; two years later he murdered Arses and made Darius railway. Pop. (1906) 6661. It is beautifully situated on the III. king. When Darius attempted to become independent of left bank of the Adour, at the northern end of the valley of the powerful vizier (Xidiapxos), Bagoas tried to poison him Campan, and the vicinity abounds in picturesque mountain too; but Darius was warned and forced him to drink the poison scenery. The town is remarkably neat and clean and many of himself (Diod xvii. 5; Johann. Antioch, p. 38, 39 ed. Müller; the houses are built or ornamented with marble. It is one of the Arrian ii

. 14. 5; Curt. vi. 4. 10). A later story, that Bagoas principal watering-places in France, and has some fifty mineral was an Egyptian and killed Artaxerxes III. because he had killed springs, characterized chiefly by the presence of sulphate of lime the sacred Apis (Aelian, Var. Hist. vi. 8), is without historical or iron. Their temperature ranges approximately from 59° to value. Bagoas' house in Susa, with rich treasures, was presented 122° Fahr., and they are efficacious in cases of rheumatism, by Alexander to Parmenio (Plut. Alex. 39); his gardens in nervous affections, indigestion and other maladies. The season Babylon, with the best species of palms, are mentioned by begins in May and terminates about the end of October, during Theophrastus (Hisl. Plant, ii. 6; Plin. Nat. Hist. xii. 41). Another which time the population is more than doubled. The Pro- eunuch, Bagoas, was a favourite of Alexander the Great (Dicaemenade des Coustous is the centre of the life of Bagnères. Close archus in Athen. xiii. 6036; Plut. Al. 67; Aelian, Var. Hist. by stands the church of St Vincent of the 14th and 15th centuries. 3.23; Curt. vi. 5. 23; X. I. 25 ff.).

(ED. M.) The old quarter of the town, in which there are several old houses, BAG-PIPE (Celt. piob-mala, ullan-piob, cuislean, cuislin; contains a graceful octagonal tower of the 15th century, the Fr. cornemuse, chalemie, musette, sourdeline, chevrette, loure; remains of a Jacobin monastery. The Néothermes, occupying Ger. Sackpfeife, Dudelsack; M. H. Ger. Suegdbalch1; Ital. part of the casino, and the Thermes (dating from 1824), which cornamusa, piva, zampogna, surdelina; Gr. åokavios (?); Lat. has a good library, are the principal bathing-establishments; ascaulus (?), tibia utricularis, utricularium; med. Lat. chorus), a both are town property. The other chief buildings include the complex reed instrument of great antiquity. The bag-pipe Carmelite church, remains of the old church of St Jean, a museum forms the link between the syrinx (q.v.) and the primitive and the town-hall. Bagnères has tribunals of first instance and organ, by furnishing the principle of the reservoir for the windof commerce, and a communal college. The manufacture of supply, combined with a simple method of regulating the soundbarège, a light fabric of silk and wool, and the weaving and knit-producing pressure by means of the arm of the performer. The ting of woollen goods, wood-turning and the working of marble bag-pipes consists of an air-tight leather bag having three to five found in the neighbourhood and imported from elsewhere, apertures, each of which contains a fixed stock or short tube. are among the industries, and there are also slate quarries. The stocks act as sockets for the reception of the pipes, and as Bagnères was much frequented by the Romans, under whom air-chambers for the accomodation and protection of the reeds. it was known as Vicus Aquensis, but afterwards lost its renown. The pipes are of three kinds: (I) a simple valved insufilation It begins to appear again in history in the 12th century when tube or“ blow-pipe,” by means of which the performer fills the Centulle III., count of Bigorre, granted it a liberal charter. bag reservoir; (2) the "chaunter " (chanter)or the melody-pipe, The baths rose into permanent importance in the 16th century, having according to the variety of the bag-pipe a conical or a when they were visited by Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henry IV., cylindrical bore, lateral holes, and in some cases keys and a bell; and by many other distinguished persons.

the “chaunter" is invariably made to speak by means of a BAGNÈRES-DE-LUCHON, a town of south-western France, double-reed; (3) the “ drones,” jointed pipes with cylindrical in the department of Haute-Garonne, 87 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse, bore, generally terminating in a bell, but having no lateral on a branch line of the Southern railway from Montréjeau. holes and being capable, therefore, of producing but one fixed Pop. (1906) 3448. The town is situated at the foot of the central note. Pyrenees in a beautiful valley at the confluence of the One and The main characteristic of the bag-pipe is the drone ground the Pique. It is celebrated for its thermal springs and as a bass which sounds without intermission. Each drone is fitted fashionable resort. Of the promenades the finest and most with a beating-reed resembling the primitive " squeaker "known frequented are the Allées d'Ètigny, an avenue planted with to all country lads; it is prepared by making a cut partly lime-trees, at the southern extremity of which is the Thermes, across a piece of cane or reed, near the open end, and splitting or bathing-establishment, one of the most complete in existence. back from this towards a joint or knot, thus raising a tongue The springs, which number 48, vary in composition, but are or flap. The beating-reed is then fixed in a socket of the drone, chiefly impregnated with sulphate of sodium, and range in tem- which fits into the stock. The sound is produced by the stream perature from 62° to 150°. A large casino was opened in the of air forced from the bag into the drone-pipe by the pressure town in 1877. The discovery of numerous Roman remains of the performer's arm, causing the tongue of reed to vibrate attests the antiquity of the baths, which are identified with the over the aperture, thus setting the whole column of air in vibraOnesiorum Thermae of Strabo. Their revival in modern times tion. The drone-pipe, like all cylindrical tubes with reed mouthdates from the latter half of the 18th century, and was due to pieces, has the acoustic properties of the closed pipe and produces Antoine Mégret d'Etigny, intendant of Auch.

the note of a pipe twice its length. The drones are tuned by BAGOAS, a Persian name (Bago), a shortened form of names means of sliding-joints. like Bagadáta, " given by God,” often used for eunuchs. The best-known of these (“Bagoses" in Josephus) became the con- a 12th-cent. Windberg M19. at Munich), p. 384, Ps. Ixxx. 2.“ nemet

See E. G Graff, Deutsche Interlinearersionen der Psalmen from fidential minister of Artaxerxes III. He threw in his lot with the den Sulmen unde gebet den Suegdbaleh."

Praetorius in 1618 figures and describes the Magdeburg sackpfeife | instrument. The original natural sense of ovμowvia is"
with two chaunters, but without keys and with a conical bore.
The surdelina or sampogna is described and illustrated by Mer-
sennel as the musette de Naples; its construction was very com-
plicated. Mersenne states that the instrument was invented by
Jean Baptiste Riva (who was living in Paris in 1620), Dom Julio
and Vincenze; but Mersenne seems to have made alterations
himself in the original instrument, which are not very clearly
explained. There were two chaunters with narrow cylindrical
bore and having both finger-holes and keys; and two drones each
having ten keys. The four pipes were fixed in the same stock, and
double reeds were used throughout; the bag was inflated by means
of bellows. Passenti of Venice published a collection of melodies
for the zampogna in 1628, under the title of Canora Zampogna.
The modern Lowland bag-pipe differs from the Highland bag-pipe
mainly in that it is blown by bellows instead of by the mouth.
The Northumbrian or Border bag-pipe, also blown by means of
bellows, is chiefly distinguished by having a chaunter stopped at
the lower end so that when all the holes are closed, the pipe is silent.
There are seven finger-holes, one for the thumb, and a varying
number of keys. The four drones are fixed in one stock and are
tuned by means of stoppers, so that, as in the musette, any one of
them may be silenced. A fine Northumbrian bag-pipe from the
collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin is illustrated (fig. 1. (5)).
The union pipes of the 18th century, or modern Irish bag-pipe,
blown by bellows (see fig. 1. (2)), had one chaunter with seven
finger-holes, one thumb-hole and eight keys, which together gave
the chromatic scale in two octaves. The drones were tuned to A in
different octaves, and three regulators or drones with keys, played by
the elbow, produced a kind of harmony; the regulators correspond
to the sliders on the drone-barrel of the musette.

64

con-

cord of sound," "a concordant interval," and the evidence
of its use for a particular instrument is of the 2nd century B.C.,
and, even so, very slight. Only one passage (Polyb. xxvi.
10. 5) really bears on the question, and there the translation
of the word depends on a context the reading of which is
uncertain (see SYMPHONIA). It is, however, curious that the
bag-pipe was known in Italy and Spain during the middle
ages, the two countries through which Eastern culture was intro-
duced into Europe, by the name of zampogna or sampogna,
which strongly recall the Chaldaean sumpōnyā; and further
that in the same countries the word sinfonia should be co-
existent with zampogna and have the original meaning attached
to the classical συμφωνία, a concord of sound." A single
passage only in Dion Chrysostom (see ASKAULES) is enough to
prove that the instrument was known in Greece in A.D. 100.5
The Greeks had undoubtedly received some kind of bag-pipe
from Egypt (in the form of the as-it), or from Chaldaca, but
it remained a rustic instrument used only by shepherds and
peasants. This conclusion is supported by allusions in Aristo-
phanes and in Plato's Crito, which undoubtedly refer to the
drone: "This, dear Crito, is the voice which I seem to hear
murmuring in my ears like the sound of the flute (aulos) in the
ears of the mystic; that voice, I say, is humming in my ears."
Aristophanes, in his play The Acharnians, indulges in a flight
of satire at the expense of the musical Bocotians, by making a
band of Theban pipers play a Boeotian merchant and his slave
into town. The musicians are dubbed "bumblebee pipers
(Boußaiλio, 1. 866) by the exasperated inhabitants. The verb
used here for "blowing" is puoâv, the very word applied to
blowing or inflating the bellows (ûσa), and not the usual verb
avλer, to play the aulos. Another instrument, mentioned by
Aristophanes in Lysistrata (l. 1242 and 1245), which was probably
a kind of bag-pipe, is also derived from pûoa, i.e. physallis, the
"concrete," and physateria, the "collective" form of the
instrument. We leave the realm of inference for that of certainty
when we reach the reign of Nero, who had a passion for the

History of the Bag-pipe.-There is reason to believe that the
origin of the bag-pipe must be sought in remote antiquity.
No instrument in any degree similar to it is represented
on any of the monuments of Egypt or Assyria known at the
present day; we are, nevertheless, able to trace it in ancient
Persia and by inference in Egypt, in Chaldaea and in ancient
Greece. The most characteristic feature of the bag-pipe is not
the obvious bag or air-reservoir from which the instrument
derives its name in most languages, but the fixed harmony of
the buzzing drones. The principle of the drone, i.e. the beating-
reed sunk some three inches down the pipe, was known to the
ancient Egyptians. In a pipe discovered in a mummy-case
and now in the museum at Turin, was found a straw beating-Hydraulus (see ORGAN: History) and the tibia utricularis.
reed in position. The arghoul (9.5.), a modern Egyptian instru-
ment, possesses the characteristic feature of drone and chaunter
without the bag. The same instrument occurs once in the
hieroglyphs, being sounded as-it, and once on a mural painting
preserved in the Musée Guimet and reproduced by Victor Loret.'
During Jacques de Morgan's excavations in Persia some terra-
cotta figures of musicians, dating from the 8th century B.C.,
were discovered in a tell (mound) at Susa, two of which appear to
be playing bag-pipes; the chaunter, curved in the shape of a
hook from the stock, is clearly visible, the bag under the arm is
indicated, and the lips are pursed as if in the act of blowing, but
the insufflation tube is absent; a round hole in one of the
figures suggests its presence formerly.

Among the names of musical instruments in Daniel iii. 5 and
15, the sixth, generally but wrongly rendered “dulcimer," is
thought by many scholars to signify a kind of bag-pipe (see
commentaries on Daniel and the theological encyc.). This
belief is based on the supposition that the Aramaic sumpōnya
is a loan-word from the Greek, being a mispronunciation of
ovμowvia. The argument is, however, exceedingly weak. In
the first place, the date of the book of Daniel is matter of con-
troversy, hingeing partly on precisely such questions as the true
significance and derivation of sumpōnyd. Second, it is possible
that the word sumponya is a late interpolation. Third, its
exact form is uncertain; in verse 10, sipponyd is used of the same
instrument, suggesting a derivation from the Gr. oidwu (tube
or pipe). Fourth, even if ovμowvia is the source of the word,
there is very little evidence that it was used for any particular
1 Op. cit. bk. v. p. 293.

That the bag-pipe was introduced by the Romans into the
British Isles is a conclusion supported by the discovery in the
foundations of the praetorian camp at Richborough of a small
bronze figure of a Roman soldier playing the tibia utricularis.
The Rev. Stephen Weston, who made a communication on the
subject to Archaeologia,10 points out further the interesting fact
in connexion with the instrument, that the Romans had instituted
colleges for training pipers on the bag-pipe, a practice followed
in the Highlands in the 18th century and notably in Skye.
Gruterus " mentions among the fraternities a Corpus et Collegium
Utriculariorum, and Spon" also quotes the Collegio Utricular.
The bag-pipe in question appears to have two drones in front
pointing towards the right shoulder, and although no chaunter
is shown in the design, both hands are held in correct positions
over the spot where it ought to be; it may have been broken
off. The bronze figure has been reproduced from drawings by
Edward King in three positions. The statement made by
several writers on music that a bag-pipe is represented on a
contorniate of Nero is erroneous, as a verification of certain
references will show. The error is due in the first place to
Dion Cysostom, ed. Adolphus Emperius (Brunswick, 1844),
p. 728 or lxxi. (R) 381. See Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v.
Askaules."
54. B. Jowett's Eng. translation (Oxford, 1892).