in principle and by instinct, they waited to ascertain the mind of the emperor, before actively opposing the reform. With the exception of the German Populists who felt that a German Liberal" party could not well oppose an extension of popular rights, all the German Liberals were antagonistic, some bitterly, to the measure. The Constitutional Landed Proprietors who had played so large a part in Austrian politics since the 'sixties, and had for a generation held the leadership of the German element in parliament and in the country, saw themselves doomed and the leadership of the Germans given to the Christian Socialists. None of the representatives of the curia system fought so tenaciously for their privileges as did the German nominees of the curia of large landed proprietors. Their opposition proved unavailing. The emperor frowned repeatedly upon their efforts. Baron Gautsch fell in April over a difference with the Poles, and his successor, Prince Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Baron Beck premier. who had taken over the reform bills, resigned also, six weeks later, as a protest against the action of the crown in consenting to the enactment of a customs tariff in Hungary distinct from, though identical with, the joint Austro-Hungarian tariff comprised in the Széll-Körber compact and enacted as a joint tariff by the Reichsrath. A new cabinet was formed (June 2) by Baron von Beck, permanent under secretary of state in the ministry for agriculture, an official of considerable ability who had first acquired prominence as an instructor of the heir apparent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, in constitutional and administrative law. By dint of skilful negotiation with the various parties and races, and steadily supported by the emperor who, on one occasion, summoned the recalcitrant party leaders to the Hofburg ad audiendum verbum and told them the reform "must be accomplished," Baron Beck succeeded, in October 1906, in attaining a final agreement, and on the 1st of December in securing the adoption of the reform. During the negotiations the number of constituencies was raised to 516, divided, according to provinces, as follows: is preponderatingly a German country and not a country preponderatingly Slav with a German dynasty and a German façade. The German constituencies, though allotted in a proportion unduly favourable, left the Germans, with 233 seats, in a permanent minority as compared with the 259 Slav seats. Even with the addition of the “Latin " (Rumanian and Italian) seats the "German-Latin block" amounted only to 257. This block no longer exists in practice, as the Italians now tend to co-operate rather with the Slavs than with the Germans. The greatest gainers by the redistribution were the Ruthenes, whose representation was trebled, though it is still far from being proportioned to their numbers. This and other anomalies will doubtless be corrected in future revisions of the allotment, although the German parties, foreseeing that any revision must work out to their disadvantage, stipulated that a two-thirds majority should be necessary for any alteration of the law. After unsuccessful attempts by the Upper House to introduce plural voting, the bill became law in January 1907, the peers insisting only upon the establishment of a fixed maximum number or numerus clausus, of non-hereditary peers, so as to prevent the resistance of the Upper Chamber from being overwhelmed at any critical moment by an influx of crown nominees appointed ad hoc. The general election which took place amid considerable enthusiasm on the 14th of May resulted in a sweeping victory for the Social Democrats whose number rose from 11 to 87; in a less complete triumph for the Christian Socialists who increased from 27 to 67; and in the success of the extremer over the conservative elements in all races. A classification of the groups in the new Chamber presents many difficulties, but the following statement is approximately accurate. It must be premised that, in order to render the Christian Socialist or Lueger party the strongest group in parliament, an amalgamation was effected between them and the conservative Catholic party:→ General election 1907. Total. 96 19 106 78 15 " 46 29 49 " 43 Styria 13 Tirol 3 Upper Austria 2 Austrian Silesia 177 15 12 Carniola Young Czechs 18 Czech Clericals 17 Old Czechs 7 10 10 Czech National Socialists 9 7 Realists Unattached Czech. Social Democrats Of all races " 26 15 18 12 In the allotment of the constituencies to the various races their tax-paying capacity was taken into consideration. In mixed districts separate constituencies and registers were established for the electors of each race, who could only vote on their own register for a candidate of their own race. Thus Germans were obliged to vote for Germans and Czechs for Czechs; and, though there might be victories of Clerical over Liberal Germans or of Czech Radicals over Young Czechs, there could be no victories of Czechs over Germans, Poles over Ruthenes, or Slovenes over Italians. The constituencies were divided according to race as follows: Poles Democrats Conservatives Centre Independent Socialist Ruthenes National Democrats Old or Russophil Ruthenes Slovenes Clericals Southern Slav Club Croats Serbs Slovene Liberals Italians } 516 이음 Hongrie (Paris, 1879), also strongly Slavophil; A. Wolf, Geschicht liche Bilder aus Österreich (2 vols., Vienna, 1878-1880), and Österreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold 1. (Berlin, 1882); E. Wertheimer, Gesch. Österreichs und Ungarns im ersten Jahrzehnt des 19ten Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Leipzig. 1884-1890); A. Huber, Gesch. Österreichs, vols. i. to v. up to 1648 (in Heeren's Gesch. Joseph L., funfzig Jahre österreichischer Gesch. (2 vols., Vienna, der europ. Staaten, Gotha, 1885-1895); J. Emmer, Kaiser Franz 1898); F. M. Mayer, Gesch, Österreichs mit besonderer Rücksicht zuf das Kulturleben (2 vols. 2nd ed., Vienna, 1900-1901); A. Dopsch, Forschungen zur inneren Gesch. Österreichs, vol. i. 1 (Innsbruck, 1903); Louis Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois de 1867 (Paris, 1904); H. Friedjung, Österreich von 1848 bis 1860 (Stuttgart, 1908 seq.); Geoffrey Drage, Austria-Hungary (London, 1909). (b) Constitutional.-E. Werunsky, Österreichische Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte (Vienna, 1894, &c.); A. Bechmann, Lehrbuch der österreichischen Reichsgesch. (Prague, 1895-1896); A. Huber, Österreichische Reichsgesch. (Leipzig and Vienna, 1895, 2nd ed. by A. Dopsch, ib., 1901); A. Luschin von Ebengreuth, Österreichische Reichsgesch. (2 vols., Bamberg, 1895, 1896), a work of first-class importance; and Grundriss der österreichischen Reichsgesch. (Bamberg, 1899); G. Kolmer, Parlament und Verfassung in Österreich, vols. i. to iii. from 1848 to 1885 (Vienna, 1902-1905). For relations with Hungary see J. Andrássy, Ungarns Ausgleich mit Österreich, 1867 (Leipzig, 1897); L. Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois de 1867 (Paris, 1904). (c) Diplomatic-A Beer, Zehn Jahre österreichischer Politik, 18011810 (Leipzig, 1877), and Die orientalische Politik Österreichs seit 1774 (Prague and Leipzig, 1883); A. Fournier, Gentz und Cobenal: Gesch. der ost. Politik in den Jahren 1801-1805 (Vienna, 1880); F. von Demelitsch, Metternich und seine auswärtige Politik, vol. i. (1809-1812, Stuttgart, 1898); H. Übersberger, Österreich und Russland seit dem Ende des 15ten Jahrhunderts, vol. i. 1488 to 1605 (Kommission für die neuere Gesch. Österreichs, Vienna, 1905). See further the bibliographies to the articles on METTERNICH, GENTZ, &c. For the latest developments of the "Austrian question André Chéradame, L'Europe et la question d'Autriche au seuil du XX siècle (Paris, 1901), and L'Allemagne, la France et la question d'Autriche (76, 1902); René Henry, Questions d'Autriche-Hongrie et question d'orient (Paris, 1903), with preface by Anatole LeroyBeaulieu;" Scotus Viator," The Future of Austria-Hungary (London, 1907). sce The legislature elected by universal suffrage worked fairly smoothly during the first year of its existence. The estimates were voted with regularity, racial animosity was somewhat less prominent, and some large issues were debated. The desire not to disturb the emperor's Diamond Jubilee year by untoward scenes doubtless contributed to calm political passion, and it was celebrated in 1908 with complete success. But it was no sooner over than the crisis over the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is dealt with above, eclipsed all purely domestic affairs in the larger European question. (H. W. S.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-1. Sources. A collection of early authorities on Austrian history was published in 3 vols. folio by Hieronymus Pez (Leipzig, 1721-1725) under the title Scriptores rerum Austriacaram veteres et genuini, of which a new edition was printed at Regensburg in 1745, and again, under the title of Rerum Austriacarum scriptores, by A. Rauch at Vienna in 1793-1794. It was not, however, till the latter half of the 19th century that the vast store of public and private archives began to be systematically exploited. Apart from the material published in the Monumenta Germ. Hist, of Pertz and his collaborators, there are several collections devoted specially to the sources of Austrian history. Of these the most notable is the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, published under the auspices of the Historical Commission of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna; the series, of which the first volume was published in 1855, is divided into two parts: (i) Scriptores, of which the 9th vol. appeared in 1904; (ii.) Diplomataria et Acta, of which the 56th vol. appeared in 1906. It covers the whole range of Austrian history, medieval and modern. Another collection is the Quellen and Forschungen zur Geschichte, Literatur und Sprache Österreichs und seiner Kronländer, edited by J. Hirn and J. E. Wackernagel (Graz, 1895, &c.), of which vol. x. appeared in 1906. Besides these there are numerous accounts and inventories of public and private archives, for which see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906), PP 14-15, 43, and suppl. vol. (1907), pp. 4-5. Of collections of treaties the most notable is that of L. Neumann, Recueil des traités conclus par l'Autriche avec les puissances étrangères depuis 1763 16 vola, Leipzig, 1855: c.), continued by A. de Plason (18 vols., Vienna, 1877-1905). In 1907, however, the Imperial Commission for the Modern History of Austria issued the first volume of a new series, Österreichische Staatsverträge, which promises to be of the utmost value. Like the Recueil des traités conclus par la Russie of TT. de Martens, it is compiled on the principle of devoting separate volumes to the treaties entered into with the several states; this is obviously convenient as enabling the student to obtain a clear review of the relations of Austria to any particular state throughout the whole period covered. For treaties see also J. Freiherr von Vasque von Püttlingen. Übersicht der osterreichischen Staatsverträge seu Maria Theresa bis auf die neueste Zeit (Vienna, 1868); and L Bittner, Chronologisches Verzeichnis der österreichischen Staatstertroge (Band G, 1526-1723, Vienna, 1903). 2. Works.-(a) General. Archdeacon William Coxe's History of the House of Austria, 1218-1792 (3 vols., London, 1817), with its continuation by W. Kelly (London, 1853: new edition, 1873), remains the only general history of Austria in the English language. It has, of course, long been superseded as a result of the research indicated above. The amount of work that has been devoted to this subject since Coxe's time will be seen from the following list of books, which are given in the chronological order of their publication: J. Majláth, Geschichte des österreichischen Kaiserstaates (5 vols., Hamburg, 1834-1850); Count F. von Hartig, Genesis der Revolution in Osterreich im Jahre 1848 (Leipzig, 1851; 3rd edition, enlarged, 3, 1851; translated as appendix to Coxe's House of Austria, ed. 1853), a work which created a great sensation at the time and remains of much value; W. H. Stiles, Austria in 1848-1849 (2 vols., New York, 1852), by an eye-witness of events; M. Büdinger, Qerreichische Gesch. bis zum Ausgange des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, vol. i to A.D. 1055 (Leipzig, 1858); A. Springer, Geschichte Öster tricki seit dem Wiener Frieden, 1809 (2 vols. to 1849; Leipzig, 18631865), A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias (10 vols., Vienna, 1863-1879); the series Österreichische Gesch. für das Volk, 17 vols., by vanous authors (Vienna, 1864, &c.), for which see Dahlmann Waitz, p. 86; H. Bidermann, Gesch. der österreichischen Gesamtcoride, 1526-1804, parts 1 and 2 to 1740 (Innsbruck, 1867, 1887); J. A. Freiherr von Helfert, Gesch. Österreichs vom Ausgange des Oberaufstandes, 1848, vols. i-iv. (Leipzig and Prague, 18691869), W. Rogge, Österreich von Világos bis zur Gegenwart (3 vols., Ling and Vienna, 1872, 1873), and Österreich seil der Katastrophe Hohenwart-Beust (Leipzig, 1879), written from a somewhat violent German standpoint; Franz X. Krones (Ritter von Marchland), Handbuch der Gesch. Österreichs (5 vols., Berlin, 1876-1879), with prous references, Gesch. der Neuzeit Österreichs vom 18ten Jahr. harder bis auf die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1879), from the German-liberal point of view, and Grundriss der österreichischen Gesch. (Vienna, 1832); Baron Henry de Worms. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (London, 2nd ed., 1876); Louis Asseline, Histoire de l'Autriche degus la mort de Marie Thérèse (Paris, 1877), sides with the Slavs against Germans and Magyars; Louis Leger, Hist. de l'Autriche (d) Racial Question.-There is a very extensive literature on the question of languages and race in Austria. The best statement of the legal questions involved is in Josef Ulbrith and Ernst Mischler's Österr. Staatsworterbuch (3 vols., Vienna, 1894-1897; 2nd ed. 1904. &c.). See also Dummreicher, Südostdeutsche Betrachtungen (Leipzig, 1893); Hainisch, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Österreicher (Vienna, 1892); Herkner, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Österreicher (ib. 1893); L. Leger, La Save, le Danube et le Balkan (Paris, 1884); Bressnitz von Sydacoff, Die panslavistische Agitation (Berlin, 1899); Bertrand Auerbach, Les Races et les nationalités en Autriche-Hongrie (Paris, 1898). (e) Biographical.-C. von Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon des Kaisertums Österreich (60 vols., Vienna, 1856-1891); also the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Many further authorities, whether works, memoirs or collections of documents, are referred to in the lists appended to the articles in this book on the various Austrian sovereigns and statesmen. For full bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906, and subsequent supplements); many works, covering particular periods, are also enumerated in the bibliographies in the several volumes of the Cambridge Modern History. (W. A. P.) AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE (1740-1748). This war began with the invasion of Silesia by Frederick II. of Prussia in 1740, and was ended by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) in 1748. After 1741 nearly all the powers of Europe were involved in the struggle, but the most enduring interest of the war lies in the struggle of Prussia and Austria for Silesia. Southwest Germany, the Low Countries and Italy were, as usual, the battle-grounds of France and Austria. The constant allies of France and Prussia were Spain and Bavaria; various other powers at intervals joined them. The cause of Austria was supported almost as a matter of course by England and Holland, the traditional enemies of France. Of Austria's allies from time to time Sardinia and Saxony were the most important. 1. Frederick's Invasion of Silesia, 1740.-Prussia in 1740 was a small, compact and thoroughly organized power, with an army 100,000 strong. The only recent war service of this army had been in the desultory Rhine campaign of 1733-35. It was therefore regarded as one of the minor armies of Europe, and few thought that it could rival the forces of Austria and France. But it was drilled to a perfection not hitherto attained, and the Prussian infantry soldier was so well trained and equipped that he could fire five shots to the Austrian's three, though the join in the campaign. He had made with Frederick the curious cavalry and artillery were less efficient. But the initial advantage agreement of Klein Schnellendorf (9th October 1741), by which of Frederick's army was that it had, undisturbed by wars, Neisse was surrendered after a mock siege, and the Austrians developed the standing army theory to full effect. While the undertook to leave Frederick unmolested in return for his Austrians had to wait for drafts to complete the field forces, releasing Neipperg's army for service elsewhere. At the same Prussian regiments could take the field at once, and thus time the Hungarians, moved to enthusiasm by the personal Frederick was able to overrun Silesia almost unopposed. His appeal of Maria Theresa, had put into the field a levée en masse, army was concentrated quietly upon the Oder, and without or "insurrection," which furnished the regular army with an declaration of war, on the 16th of December 1740, it crossed invaluable force of light troops. A fresh army was collected the frontier into Silesia. The Austrian generals could do no under Field Marshal Khevenhüller at Vienna, and the Austrians more than garrison a few fortresses, and with the small remnant planned an offensive winter campaign against the Francoof their available forces fell back to the mountain frontier of Bavarian forces in Bohemia and the small Bavarian army that Bohemia and Moravia. The Prussian army was soon able to remained on the Danube to defend the electorate. The French go into winter quarters, holding all Silesia and investing the in the meantime had stormed Prague on the 26th of November, strong places of Glogau, Brieg and Neisse. the grand-duke Francis, consort of Maria Theresa, who com2. Silesian Campaign of 1741.-In February 1741, the manded the Austrians in Bohemia, moving too slowly to save the Austrians collected a field army under Count Neipperg (1684- fortress. The elector of Bavaria, who now styled himself arch1774) and made preparations to reconquer Silesia. The duke of Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia (19th December Austrians in Neisse and Brieg still held out. Glogau, however, 1741) and elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII. (24th was stormed on the night of the oth of March, the Prussians, January 1742), but no active measures were undertaken. In under Prince Leopold (the younger) of Anhalt-Dessau, executing Bohemia the month of December was occupied in mere skirmishes. their task in one hour with a mathematical precision which On the Danube, Khevenhüller, the best general in the Austrian excited universal admiration. . But the Austrian army in Moravia service, advanced on the 27th of December, swiftly drove back was now in the field, and Frederick's cantonments were dispersed the allies, shut them up in Linz, and pressed on into Bavaria. over all Upper Silesia. It was a work of the grcatest difficulty Munich itself surrendered to the Austrians on the coronation day to collect the army, for the ground was deep in snow, and before of Charles VII. At the close of this first act of the campaign it was completed Neisse was relieved and the Prussians cut off the French, under the old Marshal de Broglie, maintained a from their own country by the march of Neipperg from Neisse precarious foothold in central Bohemia, menaced by the main on Brieg; a few days of slow manæuvring between these places army of the Austrians, and Khevenhüller was ranging unopposed ended in the battle of Mollwitz (roth April 1741), the first pitched in Bavaria, while Frederick, in pursuance of his secret obligations, battle fought by Frederick and his army. The Prussian right lay inactive in Silesia. In Italy the allied Neapolitans and wing of cavalry was speedily routed, but the day was retrieved Spaniards had advanced towards Modena, the duke of which by the magnificent discipline and tenacity of the infantry.state had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian The Austrian cavalry was shattered in repeated attempts to commander Count Traun had outmarched them, captured ride them down, and before the Prussian volleys the Austrian Modena, and forced the duke to make a separate peace. infantry, in spite of all that Neipperg and his officers could do, 4. Campaign of 1742.- Frederick had hoped by the truce gradually melted away. After a stubborn contest the Prussians to secure Silesia, for which alone he was fighting. But with the remained masters of the field. Frederick himself was far away. successes of Khevenhüller and the enthusiastic “insurrection" He had fought in the cavalry mêlée, but after this, when the of Hungary, Maria Theresa's opposition became firmer, and she battle seemed lost, he had been persuaded by Field Marshal divulged the provisions of the truce, in order to compromise Schwerin to ride away. Schwerin thus, like Marshal Saxe at Frederick with his allies. The war recommenced. Frederick Fontenoy, remained behind to win the victory, and the king had not rested on his laurels; in the uneventful summer camnarrowly escaped being captured by wandering Austrian hussars. paign of 1741 he had found time to begin that reorganization of The immediate result of the battle was that the king secured his cavalry which was before long to make it even more efficient Brieg, and Neipperg fell back to Neisse, where he maintained than his infantry. Charles VII., whose territories were overrun himself and engaged in a war of manquvre during the summer. by the Austrians, asked him to create a diversion by invading But Europe realized suddenly that a new military power had Moravia. In December 1741, therefore, Schwerin had crossed arisen, and France sent Marshal Belleisle to Frederick's camp to the border and captured Olmütz. Glatz also was invested, and negotiate an alliance. Thenceforward the "Silesian adventure " the Prussian army was concentrated about Olmütz in January became the War of the Austrian Succession. The elector of 1742. A combined plan of operations was made by the French, Bavaria's candidature for the imperial dignity was to be sup-Saxons and Prussians for the rescue of Linz. But Linz soon fell; ported by a French "auxiliary” army, and other French Broglie on the Moldau, weakened by the departure of the forces were sent to observe Hanover. Saxony was already Bavarians to oppose Khevenhüller, and of the Saxons to join watched by a Prussian army under Prince Leopold of Anhall-forces with Frederick, was in no condition to take the offensive, Dessau, the "old Dessauer," who had trained the Prussian army and large forces under Prince Charles of Lorraine lay in his front to its present perfection. The task of Sweden was to prevent from Budweis to Iglau. Frederick's march was made towards Russia from attacking Prussia, but her troops were defeated, on Iglau in the first place. Brünn was invested about the same the 3rd of September 1741, at Wilmanstrand by a greatly time (February), but the direction of the march was changed, superior Russian army, and in 1742 another great reverse was and instead of moving against Prince Charles, Frederick pushed sustained in the capitulation of Helsingfors. In central Italy on southwards by Znaim and Nikolsburg. The extreme outposts an army of Neapolitans and Spaniards was collected for the of the Prussians appeared before Vienna. But Frederick's conquest of the Milanese. advance was a mere foray, and Prince Charles, leaving a screen 3. The Alies in Bohemia. - The French duly joined the of troops in front of Broglie, marched to cut off the Prussians elector's forces on the Danube and advanced on Vienna; but from Silesia, while the Hungarian levies poured into Upper the objective was suddenly changed, and after many counter-Silesia by the Jablunka Pass. The Saxons, discontented and marches the allies advanced, in three widely-separated corps, on demoralized, soon marched off to their own country, and Prague. A French corps moved via Amberg and Pilsen. The Frederick with his Prussians fell back by Zwittau and Icutoelector marched on Budweis, and the Saxons (who had now mischl to Kuttenberg in Bohemia, where be was in touch with joined the allies) invaded Bohemia by the Elbe valley. The Broglie on the one hand and (Glatz having now surrendered) Austrians could at first offer little resistance, but before long a with Silesia on the other. No defence of Olmütz was attempted, considerable force intervened at Tabor between the Danube and and the small Prussian corps remaining in Moravia fell back the allies, and Neipperg was now on the march from Neisse to towards Upper Silesia. Prince Charles, in pursuit of the king, no part. marched by Iglau and Teutsch (Deutsch) Brod on Kuttenberg, | the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took and on the 17th of May was fought the battle of Chotusitz or Czaslau, in which after a severe struggle the king was victorious. His cavalry on this occasion retrieved its previous failure, and its conduct gave an earnest of its future glory not only by its charges on the battlefield, but its vigorous pursuit of the defeated Austrians. Almost at the same time Broglie fell upon a part of the Austrians left on the Moldau and won a small, but morally and politically important, success in the action of Sahay, near Budweis (May 24, 1742). Frederick did not propose another combined movement. His victory and that of Broglie disposed Maria Theresa to cede Silesia in order to make good her position elsewhere, and the separate peace between Prussia and Austria, signed at Breslau on the 11th of June, closed the First Silesian War. The War of the Austrian Succession continued. 5. The French at Prague.-The return of Prince Charles, released by the peace of Breslau, put an end to Broglie's offensive. The prince pushed back the French posts everywhere, and his army converged upon Prague, where, towards the end of June 1742, the French were to all intents and purposes surrounded. Broglie had made the best resistance possible with his inferior forces, and still displayed great activity, but his position was one of great peril. The French government realized at last that it had given its general inadequate forces. The French army on the lower Rhine, hitherto in observation of Hanover and other possibly hostile states, was hurried into Franconia. Prince Charles at once raised the siege of Prague (September 14), called up Khevenhüller with the greater part of the Austrian army on the Danube, and marched towards Amberg to meet the new opponent. Marshal Mailleboís (1682-1762), its commander, then maneuvred from Amberg towards the Eger valley, to gain touch with Broglie. Marshal Belleisle, the political head of French affairs in Germany and a very capable general, had accompanied Broglie throughout, and it seems that Belleisle and Broglie believed that Maillebois' mission was to regain a permanent foothold for the army in Bohemia; Maillebois, on the contrary, conceived that his work was simply to disengage the army of Broglie from its dangerous position, and to cover its retreat. His operations were no more than a demonstration, and had so little effect that Broglie was sent for in haste to take over the command from him, Belleisle at the same time taking over charge of the army at Prague. Broglie's command was now on the Danube, east of Regensburg, and the imperial (chiefly Bavarian) army of Charles VII. under Seckendorf aided him to clear Bavaria of the Austrians. This was effected with ease, for Khevenhüller and most of his troops had gone to Bohemia. Prince Charles and. Khevenhüller now took post between Linz and Passau, leaving a strong force to deal with Belleisle in Prague. This, under Prince Lobkowitz, was little superior in numbers or quality to the troops under Belleisle, under whom served Saxe and the best of the younger French generals, but its light cavalry swept the country clear of provisions. The French were quickly on the verge of starvation, winter had come, and the marshal resolved to retreat. On the night of the 16th of December 1742, the army left Prague to be defended by a small garrison under Chevert, and took the route of Eger. The retreat (December 16-26) was accounted a triumph of generalship, but the weather made it painful and costly. The brave Chevert displayed such confidence that the Austrians were glad to allow him freedom to join the main army. The cause of the new emperor was now sustained only in the valley of the Danube, where Broglie and Seckendorf opposed Prince Charles and Khevenhüller, who were soon joined by the force lately opposing Belleisle. In Italy, Traun held his own with ease against the Spaniards and Neapolitans. Naples was forced by a British squadron to withdraw her troops for home defence, and Spain, now too weak to advance in the Po valley, sent a second army to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria, and at the same time neither state was at war with France, and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley between 6. The Campaign of 1743 opened disastrously for the emperor. The French and Bavarian armies were not working well together, and Broglie and Seckendorf had actually quarrelled. No connected resistance was offered to the converging march of Prince Charles's army along the Danube, Khevenhüller from Salzburg towards southern Bavaria, and Prince Lobkowitz (1685-1755) from Bohemia towards the Naab. The Bavarians suffered a severe reverse near Braunau (May 9, 1743), and now an Anglo-allied army commanded by King George II., which had been formed on the lower Rhine on the withdrawal of Maillebois, was advancing southward to the Main and Neckar country. A French army, under Marshal Noailles, was being collected on the middle Rhine to deal with this new force. But Broglie was now in full retreat, and the strong places of Bavaria surrendered one after the other to Prince Charles. The French and Bavarians had been driven almost to the Rhine when Noailles and the king came to battle. George, completely outmanœuvred by his veteran antagonist, was in a position of the greatest danger between Aschaffenburg and Hanau in the defile formed by the Spessart Hills and the river Main. Noailles blocked the outlet and had posts all around, but the allied troops forced their way through and inflicted heavy losses on the French, and the battle of Dettingen is justly reckoned as a notable victory of the British arms (June 27). Both Broglie, who, worn out by age and exertions, was soon replaced by Marshal Coigny (1670-1759), and Noailles were now on the strict defensive behind the Rhine. Not a single French soldier remained in Germany, and Prince Charles prepared to force the passage of the great river in the Breisgau while the king of England moved forward via Mainz to co-operate by drawing upon himself the attention of both the. French marshals. The Anglo-allied army took Worms, but after several unsuccessful attempts to cross, Prince Charles went into winter quarters. The king followed his example, drawing in his troops to the northward, to deal, if necessary, with the army which the French were collecting on the frontier of Flanders. Austria, England, Holland and Sardinia were now allied. Saxony changed sides, and Sweden and Russia neutralized each other (peace of Abo, August 1743). Frederick was still quiescent; France, Spain and Bavaria alone continued actively the struggle against Maria. Theresa. In Italy, the Spaniards on the Panaro had achieved a Pyrrhic victory over Traun at Campo Santo (February 8, 1743), but the next six months were wasted in inaction, and Lobkowitz, joining Traun with reinforcements from Germany, drove back the enemy to Rimini. The Spanish-Piedmontese war in the Alps continued without much result, the only incident of note being a combat at Casteldelfino won by the king of Sardinia in person. 7. Campaign of 1744.-With 1744 began the Second Silesian War. Frederick, disquieted by the universal success of the Austrian cause, secretly concluded a fresh alliance with Louis XV. France had posed hitherto as an auxiliary, her officers in Germany' had worn the Bavarian cockade, and only with England was she officially at war. She now declared war direct upon Austria and Sardinia (April 1744). A corps was assembled at Dunkirk to support the cause of the Pretender in Great Britain, and Louis in person, with 90,000 men, prepared to invade the Austrian Netherlands, and took Menin and Ypres. His presumed opponent was the allied army previously under King George and now composed of English, Dutch, Germans and Austrians. On the Rhine, Coigny was to make head against Prince Charles, and a fresh army under the prince de Conti was to assist the Spaniards in Piedmont and Lombardy. This plan was, however, at once dislocated by the advance of Charles, who, assisted by the veteran Traun, skilfully manœuvred his army over the Rhine near Philipsburg (July 1), captured the lines of Weissenburg, and cut off the French marshal from Alsace. Coigny, however, cut his way through the enemy at Weissenburg and posted himself near Strassburg. Louis XV. now abandoned the invasion of Flanders, and his army moved down to take a decisive part in the war in Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time Frederick | the duke of Cumberland the great defeat of Fontenoy (9.0.). crossed the Austrian frontier (August). The attention and resources of Austria were fully occupied, and the Prussians were almost unopposed. One column passed through Saxony, another through Lusatia, while a third advanced from Silesia. Prague, the objective, was reached on the 2nd of September. Six days later the Austrian garrison was compelled to surrender, and the Prussians advanced to Budweis. Maria' Theresa once again rose to the emergency, a new" insurrection", took the field in Hungary, and a corps of regulars was assembled to cover Vienna, while the diplomatists won over Saxony to the Austrian side. Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace, unmolested by the French, who had been thrown into confusion by the sudden and dangerous illness of Louis XV. at Metz. Only Seckendorf with the Bavarians pursued him. No move was made by the French, and Frederick thus found himself after all isolated and exposed to the combined attack of the Austrians and Saxons. Marshal Traun, summoned from the Rhine, held the king in check in Bohemia, the Hungarian irregulars inflicted numerous minor reverses on the Prussians, and finally Prince Charles arrived with the main army. The campaign resembled that of 1742; the Prussian retreat was closely watched, and the rearguard pressed hard. Prague fell, and Frederick, completely outmanœuvred by the united forces of Prince Charles and Traun, regained Silesia with heavy losses. At the same time, the Austrians gained no foothold in Silesia itself. On the Rhine, Louis, now recovered, had besieged and taken Freiburg, after which the forces left in the north were reinforced and besieged the strong places of Flanders. There was also a slight war of manœuvre on the middle Rhine. The In Silesia the customary small war had been going on for some In 1744 the Italian war became for the first time serious. A grandiose plan of campaign was formed, and as usual the French and Spanish generals at the front were hampered by the orders of their respective governments. The object was to unite the army in Dauphiné with that on the lower Po. The adhesion of Genoa was secured, and a road thereby obtained into central Italy. But Lobkowitz had already taken the offensive and driven back the Spanish army of Count de Gages towards the Neapolitan frontier. The king of Naples at this juncture was compelled to assist the Spaniards at all hazards. A combined army was formed at Velletri, and defeated Lobkowitz there on the 11th of August. The crisis past, Lobkowitz then went to Piedmont to assist the king against Conti, the king of Naples returned home, and de Gages followed the Austrians with a weak force. The war in the Alps and the Apennines was keenly contested. Villefranche and Montalban were stormed by Conti on the 20th of April, a desperate fight took place at Peyre-Longue on the 18th of July, and the king of Sardinia was defeated in a great battle at Madonna del Olmo (September 30) near Coni (Cuneo). Conti did not, however, succeed in taking this fortress, and had to retire into Dauphiné for his winter quarters. The two armies had, therefore, failed in their attempt to combine, and the Austro-Sardinians still lay between them. 8. Campaign of 1745.-The interest of the next campaign centres in the three greatest battles of the war-Hohenfriedberg, Kesselsdorf and Fontenoy. The first event of the year was the Quadruple Alliance of England, Austria, Holland and Saxony, concluded at Warsaw on the 8th of January. Twelve days previously, the death of Charles VII. submitted the imperial title to a new election, and his successor in Bavaria was not a candidate. The Bavarian army was again unfortunate; caught in its scattered winter quarters (action of Amberg, January 7), it was driven from point to point, and the young elector had to abandon Munich once moré. The peace of Füssen followed on the 22nd of April, by which he secured his hereditary states on condition of supporting the candidature of the grand-duke Francis, consort of Maria Theresa. The "imperial" army ceased ipso facto to exist, and Frederick was again isolated. No help was to be expected from France, whose efforts this year were centred on the Flanders campaign. In effect, on the roth of May, before Frederick took the field, Louis XV. and Saxe had besieged Tournay, and inflicted upon the relieving army of 9. Operations in Italy, 1745-1747.-The campaign in Italy this year was also no mere war of posts. In March 1745 a secret treaty allied the Genoese republic with France, Spain and Naples. A change in the command of the Austrians favoured the first move of the allies. De Gages moved from Modena towards Lucca, the French and Spaniards in the Alps under Marshal Maillebois advanced through the Riviera to the Tanaro, and in the middle of July the two armies were at last concentrated between the Scrivia and the Tanaro, to the unusally large number of 80,000. A swift march on Piacenza drew the Austrian commander thither, and in his absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians at Bassignano (September 27), a victory which was quickly followed by the capture of Alessandria, Valenza and Casale. Jomini calls the concentration of forces which effected the victory "le plus remarquable de toute la guerre." But the complicated politics of Italy brought it about that Maillebois was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed, early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the peace with Frederick, passed through Tirol into Italy; the Franco-Spanish winter quarters were brusquely attacked, and a French garrison of 6000 men at Asti was forced to capitulate. At the same time Count Browne with an Austrian corps struck at the allies on the lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body |