The gross revenue of the state is more than a million sterling. In 1901 the state currency of Babashai rupees was withdrawn, and the British rupee was introduced. The regular military force consists of a field battery, with several regiments of cavalry and battalions of infantry. In addition, there is an irregular force of horse and foot. Compulsory education has been carried on experimentally since 1893 in the Amreli division with apparent success, the compulsory age being 7 to 12 for boys and 7 to 10 for girls. Special measures are also adopted for the education of low castes and aboriginal tribes. There is a female training college under a Christian lady superintendent. The Kala Bhavan, or technical school, has departments for drawing, carpentry, dyeing, weaving and agriculture. There is also a state museum under a European director, and a state library. Portions of the state are crossed by the Bombay & Baroda and the Rajputana railways. In addition, the state has constructed three railways of its own, on three different gauges. Other railways are in contemplation. The state possesses a cotton mill. The city of Baroda is situated on the river Viswamitri, a station on the Bombay & Baroda railway, 245 m. N. of Bombay by rail. Pop. (1901) 103,790. The whole aspect of the city has been changed by the construction of handsome public buildings, the laying-out of parks and the widening of the streets. An excellent water-supply is provided from the Ajwa lake. The cantonments, garrisoned by a native infantry regiment, are under British jurisdiction, and have a population of 4000. The city contains a college, and many schools. The chief hospitals are called after the countess of Dufferin, Sayaji Rao and Jamnabai, the widow of Khande Rao. became as well governed and prosperous as a British district. | of the mercury in the basin, leaving in the top of the tube an He repeatedly visited Europe in company with his wife. In apparent vacuum, which is now called the Torricellian vacuum; 1887 the queen-empress conferred upon him at Windsor the this experiment is sometimes known as the Torricellian experiment. insignia of G.C.S.I., and in 1892 upon his wife the Imperial order Torricelli's views rapidly gained ground, notwithstanding the of the crown of India. objections of certain philosophers. Valuable confirmation was afforded by the variation of the barometric column at different elevations. René Descartes and Blaise Pascal predicted a fall in the height when the barometer was carried to the top of a mountain, since, the pressure of the atmosphere being diminished, it necessarily followed that the column of mercury sustained by the atmosphere would be diminished also. This was experimentally observed by Pascal's brother-in-law, Florin Périer (1605-1672), who measured the height of the mercury column at various altitudes on the Puy de Dôme. Pascal himself tried the experiment at several towers in Paris,-Notre Dame, St Jacques de la Boucherie, &c. The results of his researches were embodied in his treatises De l'équilibre des liqueurs and De la pesanteur de la masse d'air, which were written before 1651, but were not published till 1663 after his death. Corroboration was also afforded by Marin Mersenne and Christiaan Huygens. It was not long before it was discovered that the height of the column varied at the same place, and that a rise or fall was accompanied by meteorological changes. The instrument thus came to be used as a means of predicting the weather, and it was frequently known as the weather-glass. The relation of the barometric pressure to the weather is mentioned by | Robert Boyle, who expressed the opinion that it is exceedingly difficult to draw any correct conclusions. Edmund Halley, Leibnitz, Jean André Deluc (1727-1817) and many others investigated this subject, giving rules for predicting the weather and attempting explanations for the phenomena. Since the height of the barometric column varies with the elevation of the station at which it is observed, it follows that observations of the barometer afford a means for measuring altitudes. The early experiments of Pascal were developed by Edmund Halley, Edme Mariotte, J. Cassini, D. Bernoulli, and more especially by Deluc in his Recherches sur les modifications de l'atmosphère (1772), which contains a full account of the early history of the barometer and its applications. More highly mathematical investigations have been given by Laplace, and also by Richard Rühlmann (Barometrischen Höhenmessung., Leipzig, 1870). The modern aspects of the relation between atmospheric pressure and the weather and altitudes are treated in the article METEOROLOGY. See Baroda Gazelleer, 1908. BAROMETER (from Gr. Bápos, pressure, and μérpov, measure), an instrument by which the weight or pressure of the atmosphere is measured. The ordinary or mercurial barometer consists of a tube about 36 in. long, hermetically closed at the upper end and containing mercury. In the " cistern barometer " the tube is placed with its open end in a basin of mercury, and the atmospheric pressure is measured by the difference of the heights of the mercury in the tube and the cistern. In the "siphon barometer" the cistern is dispensed with, the tube being bent round upon itself at its lower end; the reading is taken of the difference in the levels of the mercury in the two limbs. The 66 ancroid" barometer (from the Gr. a- privative, and impós, wet) employs no liquid, but depends upon the changes in volume experienced by an exhausted metallic chamber under varying pressures. Baroscopes" simply indicate variations in the atmospheric pressure, without supplying quantitative data. Barographs are barometers which automatically record any variations in pressure. Many attempts have been made by which the variation in the height of the mercury column could be magnified, and so more exact measurements taken. It is not possible to enumerate in this article the many devices which have been proposed; and the reader is referred to Charles Hutton's Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815), William Ellis's paper on the history of the barometer in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. xii. (1886), and E. Gerland and F. Traumüller's Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst (1899). Descartes suggested a method which Huygens put into practice. The barometer tube was expanded into a cylindrical vessel at the top, and into this chamber a fine tube partly filled with water was inserted. A slight motion of the mercury occasioned a larger displacement of the water, and hence the Philosophers prior to Galileo had endeavoured to explain the action of a suction pump by postulating a principle that "Nature abhorred a vacuum." When Galileo observed that a Historical. common suction pump could not raise water to a greater height than about 32 ft. he considered that the "abhorrence "changes in the barometric pressure were more readily detected was limited to 32 ft., and commended the matter to the attention of his pupil Evangelista Torricelli. Torricelli perceived a ready explanation of the observed phenomenon if only it could be proved that the atmosphere had weight, and the pressure which it exerted was equal to that of a 32-ft. column of water. He proved this to be the correct explanation by reasoning as follows:-If the atmosphere supports 32 fect of water, then it should also support a column of about 2} ft. of mercury, for this liquid is about 13 times heavier than water. This he proved in thic following manner. He selected a glass tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter and 4 ft. long, and hermetically sealed one of its ends; he then filled it with mercury and, applying his finger to the open end, inverted it in a basin containing mercury. The mercury instantly sank to nearly 30 in. above the surface and estimated. But the instrument failed as all water-barometers do, for the gases dissolved in the water coupled with its high vapour tension destroy its efficacy. The substitution of methyl salicylate for the water has been attended with success. Its low vapour tension (Sir William Ramsay and Sydney Young give no value below 70° C.), its low specific gravity (1-18 at 10° C.), its freedom from viscosity, have contributed to its successful use. In the form patented by C. O. Bartrum it is claimed that readings to oor of an inch of mercury can be taken without the use of a vernier. The diagonal barometer, in which the upper part of the tube is inclined to the lower part, was suggested by Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714), and also by Sir Samuel Morland (or Moreland). This form has many defects, and even when the tube is bent through 45° the readings are only increased in the ratio of 7 to 5. The wheel barometer of Dr R. Hooke, and the steel-yard barometer, endeavour to magnify the oscillation of the mercury column by means of a float resting on the surface of the mercury in the cistern; the motion of the float due to any alteration in the level of the mercury being rendered apparent by a change in the position of the wheel or steel-yard. The pendant barometer of G. Amontons, invented in 1695, consists of a funnel-shaped tube, which is hung vertically with the wide end downwards and closed in at the upper end. The tube contains mercury which adjusts itself in the tube so that the length of the column balances the atmospheric pressure. The instability of this instrument is obvious, for any jar would cause the mercury to leave the tube. The Siphon Barometer (fig. 1) consists of a tube bent in the form of a siphon, and is of the same diameter throughout. A graduated scale passes along the whole length of the tube, and the height of the barometer is ascertained by taking the difference of the readings of the upper and lower limbs respectively. This instrument may also be read by bringing the zero-point of the graduated scale to the level of the surface of the lower limb by means of a screw, and reading off the height at once from the surface of the upper limb. This barometer requires no correction for errors of capillarity or capacity. Since, however, impurities are contracted by the mercury in the lower limb, which is usually in open contact with the air, the satisfactory working of the instrument comes soon to be seriously interfered with. Fig. 2 shows the Cistern Barometer in its essential and simplest form. This barometer is subject to two kinds of error, the one arising from capillarity, and the other from changes in the level of the surface of the cisFIG. 1. FIG. 2. tern as the mercury rises and falls Siphon Cistern in the tube, the latter being techBarometer. Barometer. nically called the error of capacity. If a glass tube of small bore be plunged into a vessel containing mercury, it will be observed that the level of the mercury in the tube is not in the line of that of the mercury in the vessel, but somewhat below it, and that the surface is convex. The capillary depression is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube. In standard barometers, the tube is about an inch in diameter, and the error due to capillarity is less than -oor of an inch. Since capillarity depresses the height of the column, cistern barometers require an addition to be made to the observed height, in order to give the true pressure, the amount depending, of course, on the diameter of the tube. The error of capacity arises in this way. The height of the barometer is the perpendicular distance between the surface of the mercury in the cistern and the upper surface of the mercurial column. Now, when the barometer falls from 30 to 29 inches, an inch of mercury must flow out of the tube and pass into the cistern, thus raising the cistern level; and, on the other hand, when the barometer rises, mercury must flow out of the cistern into the tube, thus lowering the level of the mercury in the cistern. Since the scales of barometers are usually engraved on their brass cases, which are fixed (and, consequently, the zeropoint from which the scale is graduated is also fixed), it follows that, from the incessant changes in the level of the cistern, the readings would be sometimes too high and sometimes too low, if no provision were made against this source of error. A simple way of correcting the error of capacity is-to ascertain (1) the neutral point of the instrument, or that height at which the zero of the scale is exactly at the height of the surface of the cistern, and (2) the rate of error as the barometer rises or falls above this point, and then apply a correction proportional to Fortin's this rate. The instrument in which the error of capacity is satisfactorily (indeed, entirely) got rid of is Fortin's Barometer, Fig. 3 shows how this is effected. The upper part of the cistern is formed of a glass cylinder, through barometer. which the level of the mercury may be seen. The bottom is made like a bag, of flexible leather, against which a screw works. At the top of the interior of the cistern is a small piece of ivory, the point of which coincides with the zero of the scale. By means of the screw, which acts on the flexible cistern bottom, the level of the mercury can be raised or depressed so as to bring the ivory point exactly to the surface of the mercury in the cistern. In some barometers the cistern is fixed, and the ivory point is brought to the level of the mercury in the cistern by raising or depressing the scale. In constructing the best barometers three materials are employed, viz.:-(1) brass, for the case, on which the scale is engraved; (2) glass, for the tube containing the mercury; and (3) the mercury itself. It is evident that if the coefficient of expansion of mercury and brass were the same, the height of the mercury as indicated by the brass scale would be the true height of the mercurial column. But this is not the case, the coefficient of expansion for mercury being considerably greater than that for brass. The result is that if a barometer stand at 30 in. when the temperature of the whole instrument, mercury and brass, is 32°, it will no longer stand at 30 in. if the FIG. 3.-Fortin's Barometer. temperature be raised to 69°; in fact, it will then stand at 30.1 in. This increase in the height of the column by the tenth of an inch is not due to any increase of pressure, but altogether to the greater expansion of the mercury at the higher temperature, as compared Correc with the expansion of the brass case with the engraved tions of the scale by which the height is measured. In order, barometer reading. therefore, to compare with each other with exactness barometric observations made at different temperatures, it is necessary to reduce them to the heights at which they would stand at some uniform temperature. The temperature to which such observations are reduced is 32° Fahr. or o° cent. If English units be used (Fahrenheit degrees and inches), this 09T - 2.56. -H in the centigrade-centimetre system the correction is o001614 HT (H being the observed height and T the observed temperature). Devices have been invented which determine these corrections mechanically, and hence obviate the necessity of applying the above formula, or of referring to tables in which these corrections for any height of the column and any temperature are given. The standard temperature of the English yard being 62° and not 32°, will be found in working out the corrections from the above formula that the temperature of no correction is not 32° but 28.5°. If the scale be engraved on the glass tube, or if the instrument be furnished with a glass scale or with a wooden scale, different corrections are required. These may be worked out from the above formula by substituting for the coefficient of the expansion of brass that of glass, which is assumed to be 0.00000498, or that of wood, which is assumed to be o. Wood, however, should not be used, its expansion with temperature being unsteady, as well as uncertain. correction is given by the formula x=- 1000, If the brass scale be attached to a wooden frame and be free to move up and down the frame, as is the case with many siphon barometers, the corrections for brass scales are to be used, since the zero-point of the scale is brought to the level of the lower limb; but if the brass scale be fixed to a wooden frame, the corrections for brass scales are only applicable provided the zero of the scale be fixed at (or nearly at) the zero line of the column, and be free to expand upwards. In siphon barometers, with which an observation is made from two readings on the scale, the is a serious amount. scale must be free to expand in one direction. Again, if only, it is necessary, before comparing observations made with the In fixing a barometer for observation, it is indispensable that is filled with air, and the lower part and cistern with is the truc height of the barometer. The surface of the error arising from the increased pressure of the contained air when mercury column is convex, and in noting the height of the its temperature varies, a thermometer and sliding-scale are added, barometer, it is not the chord of the curve, but its tangent so that the instrument may be adjusted to the temperature at which is taken. This is done by setting the straight lower edge each observation. It is a sensitive instrument, and well suited of the vernier, an appendage with which the barometer is for rough purposes at sea and for travelling, but not for exact furnished, as a tangent to the curve. The vernier is made to observation. It has long been superseded by the Aneroid, which slide up and down the scale, and by it the height of the barometer far exceeds it in handiness. may be read true to 0.002 or even to o-oor in. Aneroid Barometer.-Much obscurity surrounds the invention It is essential that the barometer is at the temperature shown of barometers in which variations in pressure are rendered by the attached thermometer. No observation can be regarded apparent by the alteration in the volume of an elastic chamber. as good if the thermometer indicates a temperature differing The credit of the invention is usually given to Lucien Vidie, from that of the whole instrument by more than a degree. For who patented his instrument in 1845, but similar instruments every degree of temperature the attached thermometer differs were in use much earlier, Thus in 1799 Nicolas Jacques Conté from the barometer, the observation will be faulty to the extent (1755-1805), director of about 0-003 in., which in discussions of diurnal range, &c., of the aerostatical school at Meudon, Before being used, barometers should be thoroughly examined and a man of many as to the state of the mercury, the size of cistern (so as to admit parts - a chemist, of low readings), and their agreement with some known standard mechanician and instrument at different points of the scale. The pressure of the painter,--devised an atmosphere is not expressed by the weight of the mercury instrument in which sustained in the tube by it, but by the perpendicular height of the lid of the metal the column. Thus, when the height of the column is 30 in., chamber was supit is not said that the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb on the ported by internal square inch, or the weight of the mercury filling a tube at that springs; this instruheight whose transverse section equals a square inch, but that ment was employed it is 30 in., meaning that the pressure will sustain a column of during the Egyptian mercury of that height. campaign for measurIt is essential in gasometry to fix upon some standard pressure ing the altitudes of to which all measurements can be reduced. The height of the the war-balloons. Alstandard mercury column commonly used is 76 cms. (29-922 in.) though Vidie patented of pure mercury at oo; this is near the average height of the his device in 1845, the FIG. 4.-Aneroid Barometer. barometer. Since the actual force exerted by the atmosphere commercial manufacture of aneroids only followed after varies with the intensity of gravity, and therefore with the posi- E. Bourdon's patent of the metallic manometer in 1849, tion on the earth's surface, a place must be specified in defining when Bourdon and Richard placed about 10,000 aneroids on the standard pressure. This may be avoided by expressing the the market. The production was stopped by an action taken force as the pressure in dynes due to a column of mercury, one by Vidie against Bourdon for infringing the former's patent, square centimetre in section, which is supported by the atmo- and in 1858 Vidie obtained 25,000 francs (£1000) damages. sphere. If H cms. be the height at oo, and g the value of gravity, Fig. 4 represents the internal construction, as seen when the the pressure is 13.596 Hg dynes (13.596 being the density of face is removed, but with the hand still attached, of an aneroid mercury). At Greenwich, where g=981.17, the standard pressure which differs only slightly from Vidie's form. ais a flat circular at oo is 1,013,800 dynes. At Paris the pressure is 1,013,600 'metallic box, having its upper and under surfaces corrugated dynes. The closeness of this unit to a mega-dyne (a million in concentric circles. This box or chamber being partially dynes) has led to the suggestion that a mega-dyne per square exhausted of air, through the short tube b, which is subsequently centimetre should be adopted as the standard pressure, and it made air-tight by soldering, constitutes a spring, which is affected has been adopted by some modern writers on account of its by every variation of pressure in the external atmosphere, the convenience of calculation and independence of locality. corrugations on its surface increasing its elasticity. At the centre The height of the barometer is expressed in English înches of the upper surface of the exhausted chamber there is a solid in England and America, but the metric system is used in all cylindrical projection 4, to the top of which the principal lever Baro scientific work excepting in meteorology. In France cde is attached. This lever rests partly on a spiral spring at and most European countries, the height is given in d; it is also supported by two vertical pins, with perfect freedom readings. millimetres, a millimetre being the thousandth part of motion. The end e of the lever is attached to a second or small of a metre, which equals 39.37079 English inches. lever f, from which a chain g extends to h, where it works on a Up to 1869 the barometer was given in half-lines in Russia, which, drum attached to the axis of the hand, connected with a hair equalling the twentieth of an English inch, were readily reduced spring at h, changing the motion from vertical to horizontal, to English inches by dividing by 20. The metric barometric and regulating the hand, the attachments of which are made to scale is now used in Russia. In a few European countries the the metallic plate i. The motion originates in the corrugated French or Paris line, equailing 0-088814 in., is sometimes used. elastic box, the surface of which is depressed or elevated as The English measure of length being a standard at 62Fahr., the weight of the atmosphere is increased or diminished, and the old French measure at 61-2", and the metric scale at 32°, this motion is communicated through the levers to the axis of metric the hand at . The spiral spring on which the lever rests at d❘ is intended to compensate for the effects of alterations of temperature. The actual movement at the centre of the exhausted box, whence the indications emanate, is very slight, but by the action of the levers is multiplied 657 times at the point of the hand, so that a movement of the 220th part of an inch in the box carries the point of the hand through three inches on the dial. The effect of this combination is to multiply the smallest degrees of atmospheric pressure, so as to render them sensible on the index. Vidie's instrument has been improved by Vaudet and Hulot. Eugène Bourdon's aneroid depends on the same principle. The aneroid requires, however, to be repeatedly compared with a mercurial barometer, being liable to changes from the elasticity of the metal chamber changing, or from changes in the system of levers which work the pointer. Though aneroids are constructed showing great accuracy in their indications, yet none can lay any claim to the exactness of mercurial barometers. The mechanism is liable to get fouled and otherwise go out of order, so that they may change 0-300 in. in a few weeks, or even indicate pressure so inaccurately and so irregularly that no confidence can be placed in them for even a few days, if the means of comparing them with a mercurial barometer be not at hand. The mercurial barometer can be made self-registering by concentrating the rays from a source of light by a lens, so that they strike the top of the mercurial column, and having Baroa sheet of sensitized paper attached to a frame and graphs. placed behind a screen, with a narrow vertical slit in the line of the rays. The mercury being opaque throws a part of the paper in the shade, while above the mercury the rays from the lamp pass unobstructed to the paper. The paper being carried steadily round on a drum at a given rate per hour, the height of the column of mercury is photographed continuously on the paper. From the photograph the height of the barometer at any instant may be taken. The principle of the aneroid barometer has been applied to the construction of barographs. The lever attached to the a 'lapsible chamber terminates in an ink-fed style which records the pressure of the atmosphere on a moving ribbon. In all continuously registering barometers, however, it is necessary, as a check, to make eye-observations with a mercury standard barometer hanging near the registering barometer from four to eight times daily. See Marvin, Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure (1901); and C. Abbe, Meteorological Apparatus (1888). Reference may also be made to B. Stewart and W. W. H. Gee, Practical Physics (vol. i. 1901), for the construction of standard barometers, their corrections and method of reading. BAROMETRIC LIGHT, the luminous glow emitted by mercury in a barometer tube when shaken. It was first observed by Jean Picard, and formed the subject of many experiments at the hands of Francis Hawksbee. The latter showed that the Torricellian vacuum was not essential to the phenomenon, for the same glow was apparent when mercury was shaken with air only partially rarefied. The glow is an effect of the electricity generated by the friction of the mercury and the air in the barometer tube. BARON, MICHEL (1653-1729), French actor (whose family name originally was Boyron), was born in Paris, the son of a leading actor (d. 1655) and of a talented actress (d. 1662). At the age of twelve he joined the company of children known as the Petits Comédiens Dauphins, of which he was the brightest star. Molière was delighted with his talent, and with the king's permission secured him for his own company. In consequence of a misunderstanding with Molière's wife, the actor withdrew from the dramatist's company, but rejoined it in 1670, reappearing as Domition in Corneille's Tite et Bérénice, and in his Psyche. He remained in this company until Molière's death. He then became a member of the company at the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and from this time until his retirement in 1691 was undisputed master of the French stage, creating many of the leading rôles in Racine's tragedies, besides those in two of his own comedies, L'Homme à bonnes fortunes (1686), and La Coquette (1687). He also wrote Les Enlèvements (1685), Le Débauché (1689), and translated and acted two plays of Terence. In 1720 Baron reappeared at the Palais Royal, and his activity on the stage was renewed in a multitude of parts. He died on the 22nd of December 1729. His son ETIENNE MICHEL BARON (1676-1711) was also a fine actor, and left a son and two daughters who all played at the Comédie Française. See George Monval, Un Comédien amateur d'art (1893); also the Abbé d'Allamial's Lettres à mylord XXX. sur Baron et la demoiselle Lecouvreur, in F. G. J. S. Andrieux's Collection des mémoires sur l'art dramatique (1822). BARON. This word, of uncertain origin, was introduced into England at the Conquest to denote "the man" (i.e. one who had done him " homage") of a great lord, and more especially of the king. All who held "in chief " (i.e. directly) of the king were alike barones regis, bound to perform a stipulated service, and members, in theory at least, of his council. Great nobles, whether earls or not, also spoke of their tenants as "barons," where lesser magnates spoke of their men (homines). This was especially the case in carldoms of a palatine character, such as Chester, where the earl's barons were a well-recognized body, the Venables family, "barons of Kinderton," continuing in existence down to 1679. In the palatinate of Durham also, the bishop had his barons, among whom the Hiltons of Hilton Castle were usually styled "Barons of Hilton" till extinct in 1746. Other families to whom the title was accorded, independently of peerage dignity and on somewhat uncertain grounds, were "the barons of Greystock," "the barons of Stafford," and the Cornwalls, "barons of Burford." Fantosme makes Henry II. speak of mes baruns de Lundres "; John's charter granting permission to elect a mayor speaks of “our barons of our city of London," and a London document even speaks of " the greater barons of the city." The aldermen seem to have been loosely deemed equivalent to barons and were actually assessed to the poll-tax as such under Richard II. In Ireland the palatine character of the great lordships made the title not uncommon (e.g. the barons of Galtrim, the barons of Slane, the barons of the Naas). " As all those who held direct of the crown by military service (for those who held "by serjeanty" appear to have been classed apart), from earls downwards, were alike "barons," the great difference in their position and importance must have led, from an early date, to their being roughly divided into "greater" and "lesser" barons, and indeed, under Henry II., the Dialogus de Scaccario already distinguishes their holdings as "greater" or learn from Becket's case (1164), there arose the practice of sending "lesser "baronies. Within a century of the Conquest, as we to the greater barons a special summons to the council, while the lesser barons, it is stipulated in Magna Carta (1215), were to be summoned only through the sheriffs. Thus was introduced a definite distinction, which eventually had the effect of restricting to the greater barons the rights and privileges of peerage. Thus far the baron's position was connected with the tenure of land; in theory the barons were those who held their lands of the king; in practice, they were those who so held a large amount of land. The great change in their status was effected when their presence in that council of the realm which became the House of Lords was determined by the issue of a writ of summons, dependent not on the tenure of land, but only on the king's will. Camden's statement that this change was made by Henry III. after "the Barons' War" was long and widely accepted, but it is now assigned, as by Stubbs, to Edward I., and the earliest writs accepted as creating hereditary baronies are those issued in his reign. It must not, however, be supposed that those who received such summons were as yet distinguished from commoners by any style or title. The only possible prefix at that time was Dominus (lord), which was regularly used by simple knights, and writs of summons were still issued to the lowest order of peers as knights (chevaliers) only. The style of baron was first introduced by Richard II. in 1387, when he created John de Beauchamp, by patent, Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kidderminster, to make him " unum parium et baronum regni nostri." But it was not till 1433 that the next "baron " was created, Sir John Cornwall being then made baron of Fanhope. In spite, however, of these innovations, the former was only summoned to parliament by the style of "John | escutcheon, the man's being always on the dexter side, and the Beauchamp of Kidderminster," and the latter by that of "John woman's on the sinister. But in this case the woman is supposed Cornwall, knight." Such creations became common under not to be an heiress, for then her coat must be borne by the Henry VI,, a transition period in peerage styles, but "Baron " husband on an escutcheon of pretence. (See HERALDRY.) could not evict "Sire,' ""Chevalier" and "Dominus." Patents of The foreign title of baron is occasionally borne by English creation contained the formula " Lord A. (and) Baron of B.," but subjects, but confers no precedence in the United Kingdom. It the grantee still styled himself "Lord" only, and it is an histori- may be Russian, e.g. Baron Dimsdale (1762); German, c.g. cally interesting fact that to this day a baron is addressed in cor- Baron Stockmar, Baron Halkett (Hanoverian); Austrian, e.g. respondence, not by that style, but as the Lord A.," although Baron Rothschild (1822), Baron de Worms; Italian, c.g. Baron all peers under the rank of Duke are spoken of as "lords," while Heath; French, e.g. Baron de Teissier; French-Canadian, e.g. they are addressed in correspondence by their proper styles. To Baron de Longueil (1700); Dutch, e.g. Baron Mackay (Lord speak of "Baron A." or " Baron B." is an unhistorical and quite Reay). (J. H. R.) recent practice. When a barony, however, is vested in a lady it is now the recognized custom to speak of her as baroness, c.g. Baroness Berkeley. ་་ " The Foreign Title.-On the continent of Europe the title baron, though the same in its origin, has come, owing to a variety of causes, to imply a rank and status very different from its conThe solemn investiture of barons created by patent was notation in the United Kingdom, and again varies considerably performed by the king himself, by enrobing the peer in the in different countries. Originally baro meant no more than scarlet "robe of estate" during the reading of the patent, and "man," and is so used in the Salic and other "barbarian this form continued till 13 Jac. L, when the lawyers declared laws; eg. Si quis mortaudit barum vel feminam, &c. (Lex Aleman. that the delivery of the letters patent without ceremony was tit. 76). In this way, too, it was long preserved in the sense of sufficient. The letters patent express the limits of inheritance" husband," as in the Assize of Jerusalem (MSS. cap. 98): Si l'on of the barony. The usual limit is to the grantee and heirs male appelle aucune chose femme qui aura baron, et il la veut deffendre, of his body, occasionally, in default of male issue, to a collateral il la peut deffendre de son cors, &c. Gradually the word seems male relative (as in the case of Lord Brougham, 1860)or (as in the to have come to mean a strong or powerful man," and thus case of Lord Basset, 1797, and Lord Burton, 1897) to the heirs- generally a magnate." Finally, in France in the 12th century male of a daughter, and occasionally (as in the case of Lord the general expression barones was introduced in a restricted Nelson, 1801) to the heirs-male of a sister. Sometimes also sense, as applied properly to all lords possessing an important fief, (as in the case of the barony of Rayleigh, 1821) the dignity is subject to the rule of primogeniture and thus not liable to be bestowed upon a lady with remainder to the heirs-male of her divided up, and held of one overlord alone. Sometimes it inbody. The coronation robes of a baron are the same as those of cluded ecclesiastical lordships of the first rank. In the 13th an earl, except that he has only two rows of spots on each century the Register of King Philip Augustus places the barones shoulder; and, in like manner, his parliamentary robes have but regis Francie next to the dukes and counts holding in chief, the two guards of white fur, with rows of gold lace; but in other title being limited to vassals of the second rank. Towards the respects they are the same as those of other peers. King end of the century the title had come to mean that its bearer held Charles II. granted to the barons a coronet, having six large his principal fief direct from the crown, and was therefore more pearls set at equal distances on the chaplet. A baron's cap is the important than that of count, since many counts were only same as a viscount's. His style is "Right Honourable "; and mediate vassals. Thus the kings in granting a duchy he is addressed by the king or queen, "Right Trusty and Well- countship as an apanage to their brothers or sons used the beloved." His children are by courtesy entitled to the prefix phrase in comitatum et baroniam. From this period, howThe Honourable." ever, the title tends to sink in comparative importance. When, in the 14th century, the feudal hierarchy was com pleted and stereotyped, the barons are ranked not only below counts, but below viscounts, though in power and possessions many barons were superior to many counts. In any case, until the 17th century, the title of baron could only be borne by the holder of a territorial barony; and it was Louis XIV. who first cheapened the title in France by creating numerous barons by royal letters. This entire dissociation of the title from the idea of feudal rights and obligations was completed by Napoleon's decree of March 1, 1808, reviving the ancient titles. By this instrument the title of baron was to be borne ex officio by a number of high officials, e.g. ministers, senators, councillors of state, archbishops and bishops. It was given to the 37 mayors who attended the coronation, and could be claimed by any mayor who had served to the emperor's satisfaction for ten years, and by any member of an electoral college who had attended three sessions. The title was made to descend in order of primogeniture to legitimate or adopted sons and to the nephews of bishops, the sole condition being that proof must be presented of an actual income of 15,000 fr., of which one-third should descend with the title. The creation of barons was continued by Louis XVIII., Charles X. and Louis Philippe, and, suspended at the revolution of 1848, was revived again on a generous scale by Napoleon III.. The tolerant attitude of the Third Republic towards titles, which it does not officially recognize, has increased the confusion by facilitating the assumption of the title on very slender grounds of right. The result has been that in France the title of Baron, unless borne by the recognized representative of a historic name, not only involves no political status, but confers also but very slight social distinction. The same is true, mutatis mutandis, of most other European countries, and notably of Italy. In Austria and Germany the Barons of the Exchequer were formerly six judges (a chief baron and five puisne barons) to whom the administration of justice was committed in causes betwixt the king and his subjects relative to matters of revenue. Selden, in his Titles of Honour, conjectures that they were originally chosen from among the barons of the kingdom, and hence their name; but it would probably be more exact to say that they were officers of a branch of the king's Curia, which was theoretically composed of his "barons." The title has become obsolete since 1875, when the court of exchequer was merged in the High Court of Judicature. Barons of the Cinque Ports (originally Hastings, Dover, Hythe, Romney and Sandwich) were at first the whole body of their freemen, who were so spoken of in royal charters. But the style was afterwards restricted to their mayors, jurats, and (prior to 1831) members of the House of Commons elected by the Cinque Ports, two for each port. Their right to the title is recognized in many old statutes, but in 1606 the use of the term in a message from the Lower House drew forth a protest from the peers, that "they would never acknowledge any man that sitteth in the Lower House to the right or title of a baron of parliament" (Lords' Journals). It was the ancient privilege of these "barons" to bear a canopy over the sovereign at his or her coronation and retain it as their perquisite. They petitioned as "barons of the Cinque Ports" to attend the coronation of Edward VII., and a deputation was allowed to do so. Baron and Feme, in English law, is a phrase used for husband and wife, in relation to each other, who are accounted as one person. Hence, by the old law of evidence, the one party was excluded from giving evidence for or against the other in civil questions, and a relic of this is still preserved in the criminal law. Baron and Feme, in heraldry, is the term used when the coatsof-arms of a man and his wife are borne per pale in the same |