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bar may almost be said to be divided into several professions. The most marked distinction is that between barristers practising in chancery and barristers practising in the courts of common law The fusion of law and equity brought about by the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 was expected in course of time to break down this distinction; but to a large extent the separation between these two great branches of the profession remains. There are also subordinate distinctions in each branch. Counsel at common law attach themselves to one or other of the circuits into which England is divided, and may not practise elsewhere unless under special conditions. In chancery the king's counsel

with the law in any inferior capacity or who is a chartered or | special class of business has its own practitioners, so that the professional accountant, can enter an Inn of Court as a student until he has entirely and bona fide ceased to act or practise in such capacity. Some of the Inns also make a restriction that their members shall not be engaged in trade. A form of admission has to be filled up, containing a declaration to this effect, and mentioning inter alia the age, nationality, condition in life and occupation of the applicant. Previous to the student's call this declaration must be repeated, and he must further declare that | he is not in holy orders, has not held any clerical preferment and has not performed any clerical functions during the year preceding. Subject to the above, practising solicitors of not less than five years' standing may be called to the bar without keep-for the most part restrict themselves to one or other of the courts ing any terms, upon passing the necessary examinations, and, per contra, a barrister of the same standing may, without any period of apprenticeship, become a solicitor upon passing the final examination for solicitors. Irish barristers of three years' standing may be called to the English bar without passing any examination upon keeping three terms, and so also may barristers of those colonies where the professions of barrister and solicitor are still kept distinct. No one can become a barrister till he is twenty-one years old.

The benchers of the different Inns of Court have the right of rejecting any applicant for membership with or without cause assigned; and for sufficient reasons, subject to an appeal to the common-law judges as visitors of the Inns, they may refuse to call a student to the bar, or may expel from their society or from the profession (“ dis-bar" or "dis-bench ") even barristers or benchers. The benchers appear to take cognizance of any kind of misconduct, whether professional or not, which they may deem unworthy of the rank of barrister. The grade of barrister comprehends the attorney-general and solicitor-general (appointed by and holding office solely at the will of the government of the day), who rank as the heads of the profession, king's counsel and ordinary practitioners, sometimes technically known as" utter barristers."

The peculiar business of barristers is the advocacy of causes in open court, but in England a great deal of other business falls into their hands. They are the chief conveyancers, and the pleadings (ie. the counter statements of parties previous to joining issue) are in all but the simplest cases drafted by them. There was formerly, indeed, a separate class of conveyancers and special pleaders, being persons who kept the necessary number of terms qualifying for a call but who, instead of being called, took out licences, granted for one year only, but renewable, to practise under the bar, but now conveyancing and special pleading form part of the ordinary work of a junior barrister. The higher rank among barristers is that of king's or queen's counsel. They lead in court, and give opinions on cases submitted to them, but they do not accept conveyancing or pleading, nor do they admit pupils to their chambers. Precedence among king's counsel, as well as among outer barristers, is determined by seniority. The old order of serjeants-at-law (q.v.) who ranked after king's counsel, is now extinct. Although every barrister has a right to practise in any court in England, each

A king's counsel is appointed by letters patent to be "one of His Majesty's counsel learned in the law." The appointment rests with the lord chancellor, to whom the barrister desiring a silk gown makes application. There is no definite time required to elapse between call" and application for a seat within the bar, but it is generally understood that a barrister must be of at least ten years' standing before he is appointed a king's counsel. The first king's counsel was Sir Francis Bacon, who was appointed by Queen Elizabeth" queen's counsel extraordinary," and received a payment, by way of pledge and fee," of £40 a year, payable half-yearly Succeeding king's counsel received a similar payment, until its abolition in 1831. There was not another appointment of a king's counsel until 1668, when Lord Chancellor Francis North was so honoured. From 1775 king's counsel may be said to have become a regular order. Their number was very small so late as the middle of the 19th century (20 in 1789: 30 in 1810; 28 in 1850), but at the beginning of the 20th century there were over 250. A king's ounsel may not, unless by special licence, take a brief against the rown, but such a licence is never refused unless the crown desires bis services in the case.

of the chancery division. Business before the court of probate, divorce and admiralty, the privy council and parliamentary committees, exhibits, though in a less degree, the same tendency to specialization. In some of the larger provincial towns there are also local bars of considerable strength. The bar of Ireland exhibits in its general arrangements the same features as the bar of England. For the Scottish bar, see under ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF There is no connexion whatever between the Scottish and English bars. A distinctive dress is worn by barristers when attending the courts, consisting of a stuff gown, exchanged for one of silk (whence the expression" to take silk ") when the wearer has attained the rank of king's counsel, both classes also having wigs dating in pattern and material from the 18th century

Counsel is not answerable for anything spoken by him relative to the cause in hand and suggested in the client's instructions, even though it should reflect on the character of another and prove absolutely groundless, but if he mention an untruth of his own invention, or even upon instructions if it be impertinent to the matter in hand, he is then liable to an action from the party injured. Counsel may also be punished by the summary power of the court or judge as for a contempt, and by the benchers of the inn to which he may belong on cause shown.

The rank of barrister is a necessary qualification for nearly all offices of a judicial character, and a very usual qualification for other important appointments. Not only the judgeships in the superior courts of law and equity in England and in her colonies, but nearly all the magistracies of minor rank-recorderships, county court judgeships, &c.-are restricted to the bar. The result is a unique feature in the English system of justice, viz. the perfect harmony of opinion and interest between the bar as a profession and all degrees of the judicial bench. Barristers have the rank of esquires, and are privileged from arrest whilst in attendance on the superior courts and on circuit, and also from serving on juries whilst in active practice.

Revising Barristers are counsel of not less than seven years' standing appointed to revise the lists of parliamentary voters.

Barristers cannot maintain an action for their fees, which are regarded as gratuities, nor can they, by the usage of the profession, undertake a case without the intervention of a solicitor, except in criminal cases, where a barrister may be engaged directly, by having a fee given him in open court, nor is it competent for them to enter into any contract for payment by their clients with respect to litigation.

See J. R. V. Marchant, Barrister-al-law: an Essay on the legal position of Counsel in England (1905).

BARROIS, CHARLES (1851- ), French geologist, was born at Lille on the 21st of April 1851, and educated at the college in that town, where he studied geology under Prof. Jules Gosselet and qualified as D. ès Sc. To this master he dedicated his first comprehensive work, Recherches sur le terrain crêlacé supérieur de l'Angleterre et de l'Irlande, published in the Mémoires de la société géologique du Nord in 1876. In this essay the palaeontological zones in the Chalk and Upper Greensand of Britain were for the first time marked out in detail, and the results of Dr Barrois's original researches have formed the basis of subsequent work, and have in all leading features been confirmed. In 1876 Dr Barrois was appointed a collaborateur to the French Geological Survey, and in 1877 professor of geology in the university

BARROS

BARROTAS

439

panied by a volume containing a life of Barros by the historian Manoel Severim de Faria and a copious index of all the Decades. An Italian version in 2 vols. appeared in Venice in 1561-1562 and a German in 5 vols. in 1821. Clarimundo has gone through the following editions: 1522, 1555, 1601, 1742, 1791 and 1843, all published in Lisbon. It influenced Francisco de Moraes (q.v.); cf. Purser, Palmerin of England, Dublin, 1904, pp. 440 et seq.

of Lille. In other memoirs, among which may be mentioned | conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente, and the edition is accom-
those on the Cretaceous rocks of the Ardennes and of the Basin
of Oviedo, Spain; on the (Devonian) Calcaire d'Erbray; on the
Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany and of northern Spain; and on the
granitic and metamorphic rocks of Brittany, Dr Barrois has
proved himself an accomplished petrologist as well as palaeonto-
logist and field-geologist. In 1881 he was awarded the Bigsby
medal, and in 1901 the Wollaston medal by the Geological
Society of London. He was chosen member of the Institute
(Academy of Sciences) in 1904.

pp. 187-189, and in Severim de Faria's Life, cited above. A com-
The minor works of Barros are described by Innocencio da Silva:
pilation of Barros's Varia was published by the visconde de Azevedo
Diccionario Bibliographico Portugues, vol. iii. pp. 320-323 and vol. x.
(Porto, 1869). Tomuus sit
(E. PR.)

French politician, was born at Villefort (Lozère) on the 19th of
September 1791. He belonged to a legal family, his father, an
BARROT, CAMILLE HYACINTHE ODILON (1791-1873),
advocate of Toulouse, having been a member of the Convention
who had voted against the death of Louis XVI. Odilon Barrot's
earliest recollections were of the October insurrection of 1795.
He was sent to the military school of Saint-Cyr, but presently
removed to the Lycée Napoleon to study law and was called to
the Parisian bar in 1811.
conventionel Jean Mailhe, who was advocate before the council
of state and the court of cassation and was proscribed at the
second restoration. Barrot eventually succeeded him in both
He was placed in the office of the
positions. His dissatisfaction with the government of the
restoration was shown in his conduct of some political trials.
For his opposition in 1820 to a law by which any person might
be arrested and detained on a warrant signed by three ministers,
he was summoned before a court of assize, but acquitted.
Although intimate with Lafayette and others, he took no actual
share in their schemes for the overthrow of the government, but

BARROS, JOÃO DE (1496-1570), called the Portuguese Livy, may be said to have been the first great historian of his country. Educated in the palace of King Manoel, he early conceived the idea of writing history, and, to prove his powers, composed, at the age of twenty, a romance of chivalry, the Chronicle of the Emperor Clarimundo, in which he is said to have had the assistance of Prince John, afterwards King John III. The latter, on ascending the throne, gave Barros the captaincy of the fortress of St George of Elmina, whither he proceeded in 1522, and he obtained in 1525 the post of treasurer of the India House, which he held until 1528. The pest of 1530 drove him from Lisbon to his country house near Pombal, and there he finished a moral dialogue, Rhopica Pneuma, which met with the applause of the learned Juan Luis Vives. On his return to Lisbon in 1532 the king appointed Barros factor of the India and Mina House-positions of great responsibility and importance at a time when Lisbon was the European emporium for the trade of the East. Barros proved a good administrator, displaying great industry and a disinterestedness rare in that age, with the result that he made but little money where his predecessors had amassed fortunes. At this time, John III., wishful to attract settlers to Brazil, divided it up into captaincies and gave that of Maranhão to Barros, who, associating two partners in the enterprise with himself, prepared an armada of ten vessels, carry-in 1827 he joined the association known as Aide-toi, le ciel l'aidera, ing nine hundred men, which set sail in 1539. Owing to the He presided over the banquet given by the society to the 221 ignorance of the pilots, the whole fleet suffered shipwreck, which deputies who had signed the address of March 1830 to Charles X., entailed serious financial loss on Barros, yet not content with and threatened to reply to force by force. After the ordinances meeting his own obligations, he paid the debts of those who had of the 26th of July 1830, he joined the National Guard and took perished in the expedition. During all these busy years he had continued his studies in his leisure hours, and shortly after the commission, which sat at the hôtel-de-ville and formed itself into Brazilian disaster he offered to write a history of the Portuguese a provisional government, he was charged to convey to the an active part in the revolution. As secretary of the municipal in India, which the king accepted. He began work forthwith, chamber of deputies a protest embodying the terms which the but, before printing the first part, he again proved his pen by advanced Liberals wished to impose on the king to be elected. publishing a Portuguese grammar (1540) and some more moral He supported the idea of a constitutional monarchy against the Dialogues. The first of the Decades of his Asia appeared in 1552, and its reception was such that the king straightway commissioners chosen to escort Charles X. out of France. On his charged Barros to write a chronicle of King Manoel. His many extreme Republicans, and he was appointed one of the three occupations, however, prevented him from undertaking this book, His concessions to the Parisian mob and his extreme gentleness which was finally composed by Damião de Goes (q.v.). The towards those who demanded the prosecution of the ministers of return he was nominated prefect of the department of the Seine. Second Decade came out in 1553 and the Third in 1563, but the Charles X. led to an unflattering comparison with Jérôme Pétion Fourth and final one was not published until 1615, long after the under similar circumstances. Louis Philippe's government was author's death. In January 1568 Barros retired from his remunerativé appointment at the India House, receiving the rank urged the "broadening of the bases of the monarchy," while he of fidalgo together with a pension and other pecuniary emoluments protested his loyalty to the dynasty. He was returned to the far from satisfying his desires for reform, and he persistently from King Sebastian, and died on the 20th of October 1570. man of lofty character, he preferred leaving his children an day after the demonstration of June 1832 on the occasion of the example of good morals and learning to bequeathing them a large funeral of General Lamarque, he made himself indirectly the A chamber of deputies for the department of Eure in 1831. The pecuniary inheritance, and, though he received many royal mouthpiece of the Democrats in an interview with Louis Philippe, benefactions, they were volunteered, never asked for. historian and a stylist Barros deserves the high fame he has always pleading before the court of cassation on behalf of one of the enjoyed. His Decades contain the early history of the Portuguese rioters, he secured the annulling of the judgments given by the As an which is given at length in his Mémoires. Subsequently, in in Asia and reveal careful study of Eastern historians and geo- council of war. graphers, as well as of the records of his own country. They are distinguished by clearness of exposition and orderly arrangement. of the duchess of Orleans for that of the duke of Nemours in the The death of the duke of Orleans in 1842 was a His style has all the simplicity and grandeur of the masters of event of the succession of the count of Paris. In 1846 Barrot blow to Barrot's party, which sought to substitute the regency. historical writing, and the purity of his diction is incontestable. made a tour in the Near East, returning in time to take part a Though, on the whole, impartial, Barros is the narrator and second time in the preliminaries of revolution. He organized apologist of the great deeds of his countrymen, and lacks the banquets of the disaffected in the various cities of France, and critical spirit and intellectual acumen of Damião de Goes. Diogo demanded electoral reform to avoid revolution. He did not do Couto continued the Decades, adding nine more, and a modern foresee the strength of the outbreak for which his eloquence had edition of the whole appeared in Lisbon in 14 vols. in prepared the way, and clung to the programme of 1830. He 1778-1788. The title of Barros's work is Da Asia de João de tried to support the regency of the duchess in the chamber on Barros, dos feitos que os Portuguczes fizeram no descubrimento e the 24th of February, only to find that the time was past for

half-measures. He acquiesced in the republic and gave his terms of his will, had founded a mathematical chair at Cambridge, adhesion to General Cavaignac. He became the chief of Louis fixed upon Barrow as the first professor; and although his two Napoleon's first ministry in the hope of extracting Liberal professorships were not inconsistent with each other, he chose measures, but was dismissed in 1849 as soon as he had served to resign that of Gresham College, which he did on the oth of the president's purpose of avoiding open conflict. After the May 1664. In 1669 he resigned his mathematical chair to his coup d'étal of December 1851 he was one of those who sought to pupil, Isaac Newton, having now determined to renounce the accuse Napoleon of high treason. He was imprisoned for a short study of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon quitting his time and retired from active politics for some ten years. He was professorship Barrow was only a fellow of Trinity College; but drawn once more into affairs by the hopes of reform held out by his uncle gave him a small sinecure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward, Émile Ollivier, accepting in 1869 the presidency of an extra- bishop of Salisbury, conferred upon him a prebend in that church. parliamentary committee on decentralization. After the fall of In the year 1670 he was created doctor in divinity by mandate; the empire he was nominated by Thiers, whom he had supported and, upon the promotion of Dr Pearson to the see of Chester, he under Louis Philippe, president of the council of state. But his was appointed to succeed him as master of Trinity College by the powers were now failing, and he had only filled his new office for king's patent, bearing the date of the 13th of February 1672. about a year when he died at Bougival on the 6th of August 1873. In 1675 Dr Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor of the university. He had been sufficiently an optimist to believe in the triumph of He died on the 4th of May 1677, and was interred in Westminster the liberal but non-republican institutions dear to him under the Abbey, where a monument, surmounted by his bust, was soon restoration, under Louis Philippe and Louis Napolcon succes after erected by the contributions of his friends. sively. He was unable to foresee and unwilling to accept the By his English contemporaries Barrow was considered a consequences of his political agitation in 1830 and 1848, and in mathematician second only to Newton. Continental writers do spite of his talents and acknowledged influence he thus failed to not place him so high, and their judgment is probably the more secure the honours won by more uncompromising politicians. correct one. He was undoubtedly a clear-sighted and able He was described by Thureau-Dangin as " le plus solennel des mathematician, who handled admirably the severe geometrical indécis, le plus méditatif des irréfléchis, le plus heureux des method, and who in his Method of Tangents approximated to the ambitieux, le plus austère des courtisans de la foule.”

course of reasoning by which Newton was afterwards led to His personal relations with Louis Philippe and Napoleon, with the doctrine of ultimate ratios; but his substantial contribuhis views on the events in which he was concerned, are described in tions to the science are of no great importance, and his lectures the four volumes of his Mémoires,

edited by Duvergier de Hauranne upon elementary principles do not throw much light on the in 1875-1876. See also Thureau-Dangin, Hist. de la monarchie de difficulties surrounding the border-land between mathematics juillet.

and philosophy. (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.) His Sermons BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677), English mathematician and have long enjoyed a high reputation; they are weighty pieces divine, was the son of Thomas Barrow, a linen-draper in London, of reasoning, elaborate in construction and ponderous in style. belonging to an old Suffolk and Cambridgeshire family. His

His scientific works are very numerous. The most important are:uncle was Bishop Isaac Barrow of St Asaph (1614-1680). He was Euclid's Elements; Euclid's Data; Optical Lectures, read in the at first placed for two or three years at the Charterhouse school. public school of Cambridge: Thirteen Geometrical Lectures; The There, however, his conduct gave but little hopes of his ever

Works of Archimedes, the Four Books of A pollonius's Conic Sections, succeeding as a scholar. But after his removal from this estab- in which Archimedes Theorems of the Sphere and Cylinder are lishment to Felsted school in Essex, where Martin Holbeach investigated and briefly demonstrated; Mathematical Lectures, read was master, his disposition took a happier turn; and having soon in the public schools of the university of Cambridge. The above made considerable progress in learning, he was in 1643 entered were all written in Latin. His English works have been collected at St Peter's College, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cam

See Ward, Lives of the Gresham Professors, and Whewell's biobridge, where he applied himself to the study of literature and graphy prefixed to the 9th volume of Napier's edition of Barrow's science, especially of natural philosophy. He at first intended Sermons. to adopt the medical profession, and made some progress in BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848), English statesman, was anatomy, botany and chemistry, after which he studied chrono- born in the village of Dragley Beck in the parish of Ulverston logy, geometry and astronomy. He then travelled in France in Lancashire, on the 19th of June 1764. He started in life as and Italy, and in a voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna gave proofs superintending clerk of an iron foundry at Liverpool and afterof great personal bravery during an attack made by an Algerine wards taught mathematics at a school in Greenwich. Through pirate. At Smyrna he met with a kind reception from the the interest of Sir George Staunton, to whose son he taught English consul, Mr Bretton, upon whose death he afterwards mathematics, he was attached on the first British embassy to wrote a Latin elegy. From this place he proceeded to Con China as comptroller of the household to Lord Macartney. He stantinople, where he received similar civilities from Sir Thomas soon acquired a good knowledge of the Chinese language, on Bendish, the English ambassador, and Sir Jonathan Dawes, with which he subsequently contributed interesting articles to the whom he afterwards contracted an intimate friendship. While Quarterly Review; and the account of the embassy published at Constantinople he read and studied the works of St Chry- by Sir George Staunton records many of Barrow's valuable sostom, whom he preferred to all the other Fathers. He resided in contributions to literature and science connected with China. Turkey somewhat more than a year, after which he proceeded Although Barrow ceased to be officially connected with Chinese to Venice, and thence returned home through Germany and affairs after the return of the embassy in 1794, he always took Holland in 1659.

much interest in them, and on critical occasions was frequently Immediately on his reaching England he received ordination consulted by the British government. In 1797 he accompanied from Bishop Brownrig, and in 1660 he was appointed to the Lord Macartney, as private secretary, in his important and Greek professorship ai Cambridge. When he entered upon this delicate mission to settle the government of the newly acquired office he intended to have prelected upon the tragedies of colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow was entrusted with Sophocles; but he altered his intention and made choice of the task of reconciling the Boers and Kaffirs and of reporting Aristotle's rhetoric His lectures on this subject, having been lent on the country in the interior On his return from his journey, to a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably lost. In in the course of which he visited all parts of the colony, he was July 1667 he was elected professor of geometry in Gresham appointed auditor-general of public accounts. He now decided College, on the recommendation of Dr John Wilkins, master of to settle in South Africa, married Anne Maria Trütcr, and in Trinity College and afterwards bishop of Chester; and in May 1800 bought a house in Cape Town. But the surrender of the 1663 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, at the first colony at the peace of Amiens (1802) upset this plan. He election made by the council after obtaining their charter. The returned to England in 1804, was appointed by Lord Melville same year the executors of Henry Lucas, who, according to the second secretary to the admiralty, a post which he held for

forty years. He enjoyed the esteem and confidence of all the eleven chief lords who successively presided at the admiralty board during that period, and more especially of King William IV. while lord high admiral, who honoured him with tokens of his personal regard. Barrow was a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1821 received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh University. A baronetcy was conferred on him by Sir Robert Peel in 1835. He retired from public life in 1845 and devoted himself to writing a history of the modern Arctic voyages of discovery (1846), of which he was a great promoter, as well as his autobiography, published in 1847. He died suddenly on the 23rd of November 1848.

Besides the numerous articles in the Quarterly Review already mentioned, Barrow published among other works, Travels in China (1804); Travels into the Interior of South Africa (1806); and lives of Lord Macartney (1807), Lord Anson (1839), Lord Howe (1838). He was also the author of several valuable contributions to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. . See Memoir of John Barlow, by G. F. Staunton (1852).

BARROW, a river of south-eastern Ireland. It rises in the Slieve Bloom mountains, and flows at first easterly and then almost due south, until, on joining the Suir, it forms the estuary of the south coast known as Waterford Harbour. Including the 12 m. of the estuary, the length of its valley is rather more than 100 m., without counting the lesser windings of the river. The total area of drainage to Waterford Harbour (including the basin of the Suir) is 3500 sq. m., and covers the whole of the county Kilkenny, with parts of Waterford, Cork and Limerick, Tipperary, Carlow, King's and Queen's counties. The chief | towns on the banks of the Barrow are Athy (where it becomes navigable and has a junction with the Grand Canal), Carlow, Bagenalstown and New Ross. The chief affluent is the Nore, which it receives from the north-west a little above New Ross. The scenery on its banks is in parts very beautiful.

BARROW (from A.S. beork, a mount or hillock), a word found occasionally among place-names in England applied to natural eminences, but generally restricted in its modern application to denote an ancient grave-mound. The custom of constructing barrows or mounds of stone or earth over the remains of the dead was a characteristic feature of the sepulchral systems of primitive times. Originating in the common sentiment of humanity, which desires by some visible memorial to honour and perpetuate the memory of the dead, it was practised alike by peoples of high and of low development, and continued through all the stages of culture that preceded the introduction of Christianity. The primary idea of sepulture appears to have been the provision of a habitation for the dead; and thus, in its perfect form, the barrow included a chamber or chambers where the tenant was surrounded with the prized possessions of his previous life. A common feature of the earlier barrows is the enclosing fence, which marked off the site from the surrounding ground. When the barrow was of earth, this was effected by an encircling trench or a low vollum. When the barrow was a stone structure, the enclosure was usually a circle of standing stones. Sometimes, instead of a chamber formed above ground, the barrow covered a pit excavated for the interment under the original surface. In later times the mound itself was frequently dispensed with, and the interments made within the enclosure of a trench, a vallum or a circle of standing stones. Usually the great barrows occupy conspicuous sites; but in general the external form is no index to the internal construction and gives no definite indication of the nature of the sepulchral usages. Thus, while the long barrow is characteristic of the Stone Age, it is impossible to tell without direct examination whether it may be chambered or unchambered, or whether the burials within it may be those of burnt or of unburnt bodies.

In England the long barrow usually contains a single chamber, entering by a passage underneath the higher and wider end of the mound. In Denmark the chambers are at irregular intervals along the body of the mound, and have no passages leading into them. The long barrows of Great Britain are often from 200 to

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400 ft. in length by 60 to 80 ft. wide. Their chambers are rudely but strongly built, with dome-shaped roofs, formed by overlapping the successive courses of the upper part of the side walls. In Scandinavia, on the other hand, such dome-roofed chambers are unknown, and the construction of the chambers as a rule is megalithic, five or six monoliths supporting one or more capstones of enormous size. Such chambers, denuded of the covering mound, or over which no covering mound has been raised, are popularly known in England as "cromlechs " and in France as "dolmens (see STONE MONUMENTS). The prevailing mode of sepulture in all the different varieties of these structures is by the deposit of the body in a contracted position, accompanied by weapons and implements of stone, occasionally by ornaments of gold, jet or amber. Vessels of clay, more or less ornate in character, which occur with these early interments of unburnt bodies, have been regarded as food-vessels and drinking-cups, differing in character and purpose from the cinerary urns of larger size in which the ashes of the dead were deposited after cremation.

The custom of burning the body commenced in the Stone Age, before the long barrow or the dolmen had passed out of use. While cremation is rare in the long barrows of the south of England, it is the rule in those of Yorkshire and the north of Scotland. In Ireland, where the long barrow form is all but unknown, the round barrow or chambered cairn prevailed from the earliest Pagan period till the introduction of Christianity. The Irish barrows occur in groups in certain localities, some of which seem to have been the royal cemeteries of the tribal confederacies, whereof eight are enumerated in an ancient Irish manuscript, the Leabha na h-Uidhri, compiled c. A.D. 1100. The best-known of these is situated on the banks of the Boyne above Drogheda, and consists of a group of the largest cairns in Ireland. One, at New Grange, is a huge mound of stones and earth, over 300 ft. in diameter and 70 ft. in height. Around its base are the remains of a circle of large standing stones. The chamber, which is 20 ft. high in the centre, is reached by a passage about 70 ft. in length. In the Loughcrew Hills, Co. Meath, there is a group of about thirty stone barrows or cairns, mostly chambered, their bases measuring from 5 or 6 to 60 yds. in diameter. They are unusually interesting from the fact that many of the exposed slabs in the walls of the chambers are ornamented with spirals and other devices, rudely incised. As in the case of the long barrows, the traditional form of the circular, chambered barrow was retained through various changes in the sepulchral customs of the people. It was the natural result of the practice of cremation, however, that it should induce a modification of the barrow structure. The chamber, no longer regarded as a habitation to be tenanted by the deceased, became simply a cist for the reception of the urn which held his ashes. The degradation of the chamber naturally produced a corresponding degradation of the mound which covered it, and the barrows of the Bronze Age, in which cremation was common, are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone Age, but often surprisingly rich in the relics of the life and of the art workmanship of the time. In addition to the varied and beautiful forms of implements and weapons--frequently ornamented with a high degree of artistic taste-armlets and other personal ornaments in gold, amber, jet and bronze are not uncommon. The barrows of the bronze period, like some of those of the Stone Age, appear to have been used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark as many as seventy deposits of burnt interments have been observed in a single mound, indicating its use as a burying-place throughout a long succession of years.

In the Iron Age there was less uniformity in the buria, customs. In some of the barrows in central France, and in the wolds of Yorkshire, the interments include the arms and accoutrements of a charioteer, with his chariot, harness and horses. In Scandinavia a custom, alluded to in the sagas, of burying the viking in his ship, drawn up on land, and raising a barrow over it, is exemplified by the ship-burials discovered in Norway. The ship found in the Gokstad mound was 78 ft. long, and had a mast and sixteen pairs of oars. In a chamber abaft, the mast the viking had been laid, with his weapons, and together with him were

buried twelve horses, six dogs and a peacock. An interesting | encircled with bracelets of pure gold. In a third chamber, at the example of the great timber-chambered barrow is that at chief's feet, lay the skeleton of his favourite horse with saddle, Jelling in Jutland, known as the barrow.of Thyre Danebod, bridle and stirrups. queen of King Gorm the Old, who died about the middle of the So curiously alike in their general features were the sepulchral Toth century. It is a mound about 200 ft. in diameter, and over usages connected with barrow-burial over the whole of Europe, 50 ft. in height, containing a chamber 23 ft. long, 8 ft. wide and that we find the Anglo-Saxon Saga of Beowulf describing ihe 5 ft. high, formed of massive slabs of oak. Though it had been chambered tumulus with its gigantic masonry "held fast on props, entered and plundered in the middle ages, a few relics were found with vaults of stone," and the passage under the mound haunted when it was reopened, among which were a silver cup,ornamented by a dragon, the guardian of the treasures of heathen gold which with the interlacing work characteristic of the time and some it contained. Beowulf's own burial is minutely described in terms personal ornaments. It is highly illustrative of the tenacity with which have a strong resemblance to the parallel passages in the which the ancient sepulchral usages were retained even after the Iliad and Odyssey. There is first the preparation of the pile, introduction of Christianity that King Harold, son and successor which is hung round with helmets, shields and coats of mail. of Gorm the Old, who is said to have christianized all Denmark Then the corpse is brought and laid in the midst; the pile is and Norway, followed the pagan custom of erecting a chambered kindled and the roaring flame rises, mingled with weeping, till tumulus over the remains of his father, on the summit of which all is consumed. Then, for ten long days, the warriors labour at was placed a rude pillar-stone, bearing on one side the memorial the rearing of his mighty mound on the headland, high and broad, inscription in runes, and on the other a representation of the to be seen afar by the passers-by on land and sea. Saviour of mankind distinguished by the crossed nimbus sur- The pyramids of Egypt, the mausolea of the Lydian kings, the rounding the head. The so-called Kings' Hows at Upsala in circular, chambered sepulchres of Mycenae, and the Etruscan Sweden rival those of Jelling in size and height. In the chamber tombs at Caere and Volci, are lineally descended from the of one, opened in 1829, there was found an urn full of calcined chambered barrows of prehistoric times, modified in construction bones; and along with it were ornaments of gold showing the according to the advancement of architectural art at the period of characteristic workmanship of the 5th and 6th centuries of the their erection. There is no country in Europe destitute of more Christian era. Along with the calcined human bones were bones or less abundant proofs of the almost universal prevalence of of animals, among which those of the horse and the dog were barrow-burial in early times. It can also be traced on both sides distinguished.

of the basin of the Mediterranean, and from Asia Minor across Comparing the results of the researches in European barrows the continent to India, China and Japan. with such notices of barrow-burial as may be gleaned from early In the new world as well as in the old, similar customs prewritings, we find them mutually illustrative.

vailed from a very remote period. In the great plains of North The Homeric account of the building of the barrow of Hector America the dead were buried in barrow's of enormous magnitude, (II. xxiv.) brings vividly before us the scene so often suggested by which occasionally present a remarkable similarity to the barrows the examination of the tumuli of prehistoric times. During nine of Great Britain. In these mounds cremation appears more days wood was collected and brought, in carts drawn by oxen, to frequently than inhumation; and both are accompanied by the site of the funeral pyre. Then the pyre was built and the implements, weapons and ornaments of stone and bone. The body laid upon it. After burning for twenty-four hours the pottery accompanying the remains is often elaborately ornasmouldering embers were extinguished with libations of wine. mented, and the mound builders were evidently possessed of a The white and calcined bones were then picked out of the ashes higher development of taste and skill than is evinced by any of by the friends and placed in a metallic urn, which was deposited the modern aboriginal races, by whom the mounds and their in a hollow grave or cist and covered over with large well-fitting contents are regarded as utterly mysterious. stones. Finally, a barrow of great magnitude was heaped over It is not to be wondered at that customs so widely spread and the remains and the funeral feast was celebrated. The obsequies so deeply rooted as those connected with barrow-burial should of Achilles, as described in the Odyssey, were also celebrated with have been difficult to eradicate. In fact, compliance with the details which are strikingly similar to those observed in tumuli Christian practice of inhumation in the cemeteries sanctioned by both of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The body was brought to the the church, was only enforced in Europe by capitularies denouncpile in an embroidered robe and jars of unguents and honey were ing the punishment of death on those who persisted in burying placed beside it. Sheep and oxen were slaughtered at the pile. their dead after the pagan fashion or in the pagan mounds. Yet The incinerated bones were collected from the ashes and placed even in the middle ages kings of Christian countries were buried in a golden urn along with those of Patroclus, Achilles's dcarest with their swords and spears, and queens with their spindles and friend. Over the remains a great and shapely mound was raised ornaments; the bishop was laid in his grave with his crozier and on the high headland, so that it might be seen from afar by future comb; the priest with his chalice and vestments; and clay generations of men.

vessels filled with charcoal (answering to the urns of heathen Herodotus, describing the funeral customs of the Scythians, times) are found in the churches of France and Denmark. states that, on the death of a chief, the body was placed upon a AUTHORITIES.-Canon W. Greenwell, British Barrows (London, couch in a chamber sunk in the earth and covered with timber, 1877); Dr J. Thurnam, “On Ancient British Barrows," in Archaeoin which were deposited all things needful for the comfort of the logia, vols, 42, 43 (1869): J. R. Mortimer, Forty years' Researches deceased in the other world. One of his wives was strangled and in Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire (London, 1905); J. Anderson, laid beside him, his cup-bearer and other attendants, his chario- Records of Explorations among the Cairns of Arran and Bute," in teer and his horses were killed and placed in the tomb, which was Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, yols, 36, 37, 38 then filled up with earth and an enormous mound raised high over (1901–1903). W. C. Borlase, the Dolmens of Ireland (London, all. The barrows which cover the plains of ancient Scythia attest 1897); Dictionnaire archéologique de la Gaule (Paris, 1875): A. P. the truth of this description. A Siberian barrow, described by 1900); S. Müller, Nordische Altertumskunde aus Danemark und Demidov, contained three contiguous chambers of unhewn stone. Schleswig (Strassburg, 1897); 0. Montelius, The Cirilication of In the central chamber lay the skeleton of the ancient chief, with Sweden in Heathen times. London, 1888), and Der Orient and his sword, his spear, his bow and a quiver full of arrows.' The Europa (Stockholm, 1899); E. Cartailhac, "Les Åges préhistoriques skeleton reclined upon a sheet of pure gold, extending the whole Dolmens and Burial Mounds in Japan." in Archaeologia, vol. 55 length of the body, which had been wrapped in a mantle broidered (1897); C. Thomas, "Report on the Mound Explorations of the with gold and studded with precious stones. Over it was extended Bureau of Ethnology (Twelfth Annual Repori for 1890-1891, another sheet of pure gold. In a smaller chamber at the chief's Washington, 1894.)

C. AN.) head lay the skeleton of a female, richly attired, extended upon BARROWE, HENRY (? 1550-1593), English Puritan and a sheet of pure gold and similarly covered with a sheet of the same Separatist, was born about 1550, at Shipdam, Norfolk, of a metal. A golden chain adorned her neck and her arms were I family related by marriage to the lord keeper Bacon, and

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