The opportunities afforded by automatic writing for communi- | form a real language, which is, however, based on one already cating with subconscious strata of the personality have been known to the speaker. made use of by Pierre Janet and others in cases of hysteroepilepsy, and other forms of dissociation of consciousness. A patient in an attack of hysterical convulsions, to whom oral appeals are made in vain, can sometimes be induced to answer in writing questions addressed to the hand, and thus to reveal the secret of the malady or to accept therapeutic suggestions.

duchy, but all were confiscated by the crown in consequence canal of Nivernais reaches as far as Auxerre, which has a busy of the sentence which punished the constable's treason in 1527. port and carries on boat-building. Trade is principally in the The countship, however, had passed in 1422 to the house of choice wine of the surrounding vineyards, and in timber and La Tour, and was not annexed to the domain until 1615. The coal. administration of the royal province of Auvergne was organized Auxerre (Autessiodurum) became the seat of a bishop and a under Louis XIV. At the time of the revolution it formed what civitas in the 3rd century. Under the Merovingian kings the was called a "government," with two divisions: Upper Auvergne abbey of St Germain, named after the 6th bishop, was founded, (Aurillac), and Lower Auvergne (Clermont).

and in the 9th century its schools had made the town a seat of BIBLIOGRAPHY.---Baluze, flistoire généalogique de la maison learning. The bishopric was suppressed in 1790. d'Auvergne (1708);

André Imberdis, Histoire générale de l'Auvergne (1867); J. B. M. Biclawski, Histoire de la comté d'Auvergne et de

The countship of Auxerre was granted by King Robert I. sa capitale Vic-le-Comte (1868); B. Gonot, Catalogue des ouvrages to his son-in-law Renaud, count of Nevers. It remained in the imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne (1849). See further house of Nevers until 1184, when it passed by marriage to that of Chevalier, Répertoire des sources hist., Topobibliographie, s.v. Courtenay. Other alliances transferred it successively to the

AUXANOMETER (Gr. aúčavelv, to increase, uét pov, measure), families of Donzy, Châtillon, Bourbon and Burgundy. Alice an apparatus for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants. of Burgundy, countess of Auxerre, married John of Châlons

AUXENTIUS (fl. C. 370), of Cappadocia, an Arian theologian (d. 1309), and several counts of Auxerre belonging to the house of some eminence (see Arius). When Constantine deposed the of Châlons distinguished themselves in the wars against the orthodox bishops who resisted, Auxentius was installed into English during the 14th century. John II., count of Auxerre, the seat of Dionysius, bishop of Milan, and came to be regarded was killed at the battle of Crécy (1346), and his grandson, John as the great opponent of the Nicene doctrine in the West. So IV., sold his countship to King Charles V. in 1370. prominent did he become, that he was specially mentioned by AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help), that which gives aid name in the condemnatory decree of the synod which Damasus, or support; the term is used in grammar of a verb which bishop of Rome, urged by Athanasius, convened in defence completes the tense, mood or voice of another verb; in engineerof the Nicene doctrine (A.D. 369). When the orthodox emperor ing, e.g. of the low steam power used to supplement the sailValentinian ascended the throne, Auxentius was left undisturbed power in sailing ships, still occasionally used in yachts, sealers in his diocese, but his theological doctrines were publicly attacked or whalers; and in military use, of foreign or allied troops, by Hilary of Poitiers.

more properly of any troops not permanently maintained The chief source of information about him is the Liber contra under arms. In the British army the term “ Auxiliary Forces" Auxentium in the Benedictine edition of the works of Hilary. was employed formerly to include the Militia, the Imperial

AUXERRE, a town of central France, capital of the department | Yeomanry and the Volunteers. of Yonne, 38 m. S.S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon railway, AUXIMUM (mod. Osimo), an ancient town in Picenum, situated between Laroche and Nevers. Pop. (1906) 16,971. It is situated on an isolated hill 8 m. from the Adriatic, on the road from on the slopes and the summit of an eminence on the left bank | Ancona to Nuceria. It was selected by the Romans as a fortress of the Yonne, which is crossed by two bridges leading to suburbs to protect their settlements in northern Picenum, and strongly on the right bank. The town is irregularly built and its streets fortified in 174 B.C. The walls erected at that period, of large are steep and narrow, but it is surrounded by wide tree-lined rectangular blocks of stone, still exist in great part. Auximum boulevards, which have replaced the ancient fortifications, and became a colony at latest in 157 B.C. It often appears in the has some fine churches. That of St Etienne, formerly the history of the civil wars, owing to its strong position. Pompey cathedral, is a majestic Gothic building of the 13th to the 16th was its patron, and intended that Caesar should find resistance centuries. It is entered by three richly sculptured portals, here in 49 B.C. It appears to have been a place of some imover the middle and largest of which is a rosé window; over the portance in imperial times, as inscriptions and the monuments north portal rises a massive tower, but that which should sur- of its forum (the present piazza) show. In the 6th century it is mount the south portal is unfinished. The lateral entrances called by Procopius the chief town of Picenum, Ancona being are sheltered by tympana and arches profusely decorated with spoken of as its harbour.

(T. As.) statuettes. The plan consists of a nave, with aisles and lateral AUXONNE, a town of eastern France, in the department chapels, transept and choir, with a deambulatory at a slightly Côte d'Or, 19 m. E.S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon raillower level. Beneath the choir, which is a fine example of early way to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 2766 (town); 6307 (commune). Gothic architecture, extends a crypt of the 11th century with Auxonne is a quiet town situated in a wide plain on the left bank mural paintings of the 12th century. The church has some fine of the Saône. It preserves remains of ramparts, a stronghold of stained glass and many pictures and other works of art. The the 16th century flanked by cylindrical towers, and a sculptured ancient episcopal palace, now used as prefecture, stands behind gateway of the 15th century. Vauban restored these works in the cathedral, it preserves a Romanesque gallery of the 12th the latter half of the 17th century, and built the arsenal now used century. The church of St Eusébe belongs to the 12th, 13th and as a market. The church of Notre-Dame dates from the 14th 16th centuries. Of the abbey church of St Germain, built in century. Of the two towers surmounting its triple porch only the 13th and 14th centuries, most of the nave has disappeared, that to the south is finished. A lofty spire rises above a third so that its imposing Romanesque tower stands apart from it; tower over the crossing. The hôtel de ville (15th century) and crypts of the 9th century contain the tombs of bishops of Auxerre some houses of the Renaissance period are also of architectural The abbey was once fortified and a high wall and cylindrical interest. A statue of Napoleon I, as a sub-lieutenant comtower remain. The buildings (18th century) are partly occupied memorates his sojourns in the town from 1788 to 1791. Auxonne by a hospital and a training-college. The church of St Pierre, has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college. Its: in the Renaissance style of the 16th and 17th centuries, is con- industries are unimportant, but it has a large trade in the vegespicuous for the elaborate ornamentation of its west façade. tables produced by the numerous market gardens in the vicinity. The old law-court contains the museum, with a collection of Auxonne, the name of which is derived from its position on antiquities and paintings, and a library. In the middle of the the Saône (ad Sonam), was in the middle ages chief place of a town is a gateway

surmounted by a belíry, dating from the 15th countship, which in the first half of the 13th century passed to century, Auxerre has statues of Marshal Davout, J. B.J. Fourier the dukes of Burgundy. The town received a charter in 1229 and Paul Bert, the two latter natives of the town. The town and derived some importance

from the mint which the dukes of is the seat of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance Burgundy founded in it. It was invested by the allies in 1814, and of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. A lycée and surrendered to an Austrian force in the following year. for girls, a communal college and training colleges are among its AVA, the ancient capital of the Burman empire, now a educational establishments. Manufactures of ochre, of which there subdivision of the Sagaing district in the Sagaing division of are quarries in the vicinity, and of iron goods are carried on, The Upper Burma. It is situated on the Irrawaddy on the opposite

Vauban, the military engineer. The public institutions include the subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college. The manufacture of biscuits and gingerbread, and of leather and farm implements is carried on, and there is considerable traffic in wood, wine, and the live-stock and agricultural produce of the surrounding country.

Avallon (Aballo) was in the middle ages the seat of a viscounty dependent on the duchy of Burgundy, and on the death of Charles the Bold passed under the royal authority.

bank to Sagaing, with which it was amalgamated in 1889. | the flanking towers, are still to be seen. Avallon has a statue of Amarapura, another ancient capital, lies 5 m. to the north-east of Ava, and Mandalay, the present capital, 6 m. to the north. The classical name of Ava is Yadanapura, "the city of precious gems." It was founded by Thadomin Paya in A.D. 1364 as successor to Pagan, and the religious buildings of Pagan were to a certain extent reproduced here, although on nothing like the same scale as regards either size or splendour. It remained the seat of government for about four centuries with a succession of thirty kings. In 1782 a new capital, Amarapura, was founded by Bodaw Paya, but was deserted again in favour of Ava by King Baggidaw in 1823. On his deposition by King Tharawaddi in 1337, the capital reverted to Amarapura; but finally in 1860 the last capital of Mandalay was occupied by King Mindōn. For picturesque beauty Ava is unequalled in Burma, but it is now more like a park than the site of an old capital. Traces of the great council chamber and various portions of the royal palace are still visible, but otherwise the secular buildings are completely destroyed, and most of the religious edifices are also dilapidated. AVADANA, the name given to a type of Buddhist romance literature represented by a large number of Sanskrit (Nepalese) collections, of which the chief are the Avadānasataka (Century of Legends), and the Divyavadana (The Heavenly Legend). Though of later date than most of the canonical Buddhist books, they are held in veneration by the orthodox, and occupy much the same position with regard to Buddhism that the Puranas do towards Brahminism.

AVAHI, the native name of a Malagasy lemur (Avakis laniger) nearly allied to the indri (q.v.), and the smallest representative of the subfamily Indrisinae, characterized by its woolly coat, and measuring about 28 in. in length, of which rather more than half is accounted for by the tail. Unlike the other members of the group, the avahi is nocturnal, and does not associate in small troops, but is met with either alone or in pairs. Very slow in its movements, it rarely descends to the ground, but, when it does, walks upright like the other members of the group. It is found throughout the forests which clothe the mountains on the east coast of Madagascar, and also in a limited district on the northwest coast, the specimens from the latter locality being of smaller size and rather different in colour. The eastern phase is generally rusty red above, with the inner sides of the limbs white; while the predominant hue in the western form is usually yellowish brown. (See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*) AVALANCHE (adopted from a French dialectic form, avalance, descent), a mass of snow and ice mingled with earth and stones, which rushes down a mountain side, carrying everything before it, and producing a strong wind which uproots trees on each side of its course. Where the supply of snow exceeds the loss by evaporation the surplus descends the mountain sides, slowly in the form of glaciers, or suddenly in ice-falls or in avalanches. A mass of snow may accumulate upon a steep slope and become compacted into ice by pressure, or remain loosely aggregated. When the foundation gives way, owing to the loosening effect of spring rains or from any other cause, the whole mass slides downward. A very small cause will sometimes set a mass of overloaded snow in motion. Thunder or even a loud shout is ad to produce this effect when the mass is just poised, and Swiss guides often enjoin absolute silence when crossing dangerous spots

AVALLON, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 34 m. S.S.E. of Auxerre on a branch of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5197. The town, with wide streets and picturesque promenades, is finely situated on a promontory, the base of which is washed on the south by the Cousin, on the east and west by small streams. Its chief building, the church of St Lazare, dates from the 12th century. The two western portals are adorned with scuipiure in the ornate Romanesque style; the tower on the left of the façade was rebuilt in the 17th century. The Tour de L'Horloge, pierced by a gateway through which passes the Grande Rue, is a 15th century structure containing a museum on its second Bour. Remains of the ancient fortifications, including seven of

AVALON (also written AVALLON, AVOLLON, AVILION and AVELION), in Welsh mythology the kingdom of the dead, afterwards an earthly paradise in the western seas, and finally, in the Arthurian romances, the abode of heroes to which King Arthur was conveyed after his last battle. In Welsh the name is Ynys yr Afallon, usually interpreted "Isle of Apples," but possibly connected with the Celtic tradition of a king over the dead named Avalloc (in Welsh Afallach). If the traditional derivation is correct, the name is derived from the Welsh afal, an apple, and, as no other large fruit was well known to the races of northern Europe, is probably intended to symbolize the feasting and enjoyments of clysium. Other forms of the name are Ynysvitrin and Ynysgutrin, "Isle of Glass "--which appear to be identical with Glasberg, the Teutonic kingdom of the dead. Perhaps owing to a confusion between Glasberg or Ynysvitrin and the Anglo-Saxon Glaestinga-burh, Glastonbury, the name "Isle of Avalon was given to the low ridge in central Somersetshire which culminates in Glastonbury Tor, while Glastonbury itself came to be called Avalon. Attempts have also been made to identify Avalon with other places in England and Wales. See Studies in the Arthurian Legend, by J. Rhys (Oxford, 1891); also ARTHUR (KING); ATLANTIS.

AVARAY, a French territorial title belonging to a family some of whose members have been conspicuous in history. The Béarnaise family named Bésiade moved into the province of Orléanais in the 17th century, and there acquired the estate of Avaray. In 1667 Théophile de Bésiade, marquis d'Avaray, obtained the office of grand bailiff of Orleans, which was held by several of his descendants after him. Claude Antoine de Bésiade, marquis d'Avaray, was deputy for the bailliage of Orleans in the states-general of 1789, and proposed a Declaration of the Duties of Man as a pendant to the Declaration of the Rights of Man; he subsequently became a lieutenant-general in 1814, a peer of France in 1815, and duc d'Avaray in 1818. Antoine Louis François, comte d'Avaray, son of the above, distinguished himself during the Revolution by his devotion to the comte de Provence, afterwards Louis XVIII., whose emigration he assisted. Having nominally become king in 1799, that prince created the estate of Ile-Jourdain a duchy, under the title of Avaray, in favour of the comte d'Avaray, whom he termed his "liberator." (M. P.*)

AVARS, or AVARI, an East Caucasian people, the most renowned of the Lesghian tribes, inhabiting central Daghestan (see LESGHIANS). They are the only Lesghian tribe who possess a written language, for which they make use of the Arabic characters. They are often confused with the Avars whose empire on the Danube was broken by Charlemagne; but Komarov asserts that they are of more recent origin as a tribe, their name being Lowland Turki for "vagrant or "refugee.'

AVATAR, a Sanskrit word meaning descent," specially used in Hindu mythology (and so in English) to express the incarnation of a deity visiting the earth for any purpose. The ten Avatars of Vishnu are the most famous. The Hindus believe he has appeared (1) as a fish, (2) as a tortoise, (3) as a hog, (4) as a monster, half man half lion, to destroy the giant Iranian, (5) as a dwarf, (6) as Rāma, (7) again as Rama for the purpose of killing the thousand-armed giant Cartasuciriargunan, (8) as Krishna, (9) as Buddha. They allege that the tenth Avatar has yet to occur and will be in the form of a white-winged horse (Kalki) who will destroy the earth.

has been the source of much difference of opinion among antiquaries, Dr Stukely (Stonehenge a Temple restored to the British Druids, 1740) regarding it as a Druidical temple, while Fergusson (Rude Stone Monuments, 1872) believed that it, as well as Silbury Hill, marks the site of the graves of those who fell in the last | Arthurian battle at Badon Hill (A.D. 520). The majority of antiquaries, however, see no reason for dissociating its chronological horizon from that of the numerous other analogous monuments found in Great Britain, many of which have been shown to be burial places of the Bronze Age. Excavations were carried out | here in 1908, but without throwing any important new light on the monument.

There are many barrows on the neighbouring downs, besides traces of a double oval of monoliths on Hackpen hill, and the huge mound of Silbury Hill. Waden Hill, to the south, has been, like Badbury, identified with Badon Hill, which was the traditional scene of the twelfth and last great battle of King Arthur in 520. The Roman road from Winchester to Bath skirts the south side of Silbury Hill.

on the 30th of April 1834, the son of Sir John William Lubbock, | the purpose for which the Avebury monument was erected 3rd baronet, himself a highly distinguished man of science. John Lubbock was sent to Eton in 1845; but three years later was taken into his father's bank, and became a partner at twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy. His love of science kept pace with his increasing participation in public affairs. He served on commissions upon coinage and other financial questions; and at the same time acted as president of the Entomological Society and of the Anthropological Institute. Early in his career several banking reforms of great importance were due to his initiative, while such works as Prehistoric Times (1865) and The Origin of Civilization (1870) were proceeding from his pen. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was elected a member of parliament for Maidstone. He lost the seat at the election of 1880; but was at once elected member for London University, of which he had been vice-chancellor since 1872. He carried numerous enactments in parliament, including the Bank Holidays Act 1871, and bills dealing with absconding debtors, shop hours regulations, public libraries, open spaces, and the preservation of ancient monuments, and he proved himself an indefatigable and influential member of the Unionist party. A prominent supporter of the Statistical Society, he took an active part in criticizing the encroachment of municipal trading and the increase of the municipal debt. He was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers in 1879; in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnaean Society. He received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Cambridge (where he was Rede lecturer in 1886), Edinburgh, Dublin and Würzburg; and in 1878 was appointed a trustee of the British Museum. From 1888 to 1892 he was president of the London Chamber of Commerce; from 1889 to 1890 vicechairman and from 1890 to 1892 chairman of the London County Council. During the same period he served on royal commissions on education and on gold and silver. In 1890 he was appointed a privy councillor; and was chairman of the committee of design on the new coinage in 1891. In 1900 he was raised to the peerage, under the title of Baron Avebury, and he continued to play a leading part in public life, not only by the weight of his authority on many subjects, but by the readiness with which he lent his support to movements for the public benefit. Among other matters he was a prominent advocate of proportional representation. As an original author and a thoughtful popularizer of natural history and philosophy he had few rivals in his day, as is evidenced by the number of editions issued of many of his writings, among which the most widely-read have been: The Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects (1873), British Wild Flowers (1875), Ants, Bees and Wasps (1882), Flowers, Fruit and Leaves (1886), The Pleasures of Life (1887), The Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals (1888), The Beauties of Nature (1892), The Use of Life (1894).

AVEBURY, a village in the Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, on the river Kennet, 8 m. by road from Marlborough. The fine church of St James contains an early font with Norman carving, a rich Norman doorway, a painted reredos, and a beautiful old roodstone in good preservation. Avebury House is Elizabethan, with a curious stone dovecot. The village has encroached upon the remains of a huge stone circle (not quite circular), surrounded by a ditch and rampart of earth, and once approached by two avenues of monoliths. Within the larger circle were two smaller ones, placed not in the axis of the great one but on its north-eastern side, each of which consisted of a double concentric ring of stones; the centre being in one case a menhir or pillar, in the other a dolmen or tablestone resting on two uprights. Few traces remain, as the monoliths have been largely broken up for building purposes. The circle is the largest specimen of primitive stone monuments in Britain, measuring on the average 1200 ft. in diameter. The stones are all the native Sarsens which occur everywhere in the district, and show no evidence of having been hewn. Those still remaining vary in size from 5 to 20 ft. in height above ground, and from 3 to 12 ft. in breadth. As in the case of Stonehenge,

At the time of the Domesday Survey, the church of Avebury (Avreberie, Abury), with two hides attached, was held in chief by Rainbold, a priest, and was bestowed by Henry III. on the abbot and monks of Cirencester, who continued to hold it until the reign of Henry VIII. The manor of Avebury was granted in the reign of Henry I. to the Benedictine monks of St George of Boucherville in Normandy, and a cell from that abbey was subsequently established here. In consequence of the war with France in the reign of Edward III., this manor was annexed by the crown, and was conferred on the newly founded college of New College, Oxford, together with all the possessions, spiritual and temporal, of the priory.

AVEIA, an ancient town of the Vestini, on the Via Claudia Nova, 6 m. S.E. of Aquila, N.E. of the modern village of Fossa. Some remains of ancient buildings still exist, and the name Aveia still clings to the place. The identification was first made by V. M. Giovenazzi, Della Città di Aveia ne' Vestini (Rome, 1773). Paintings in the church of S. Maria ad Cryptas, of the 12th to 15th centuries, are important in the history of art. An inscription of a stationarius of the 3rd century, sent here on special duty (no doubt for the suppression of brigandage), was found here in 1902 (A. von Domaszewski, Röm. Mitt., 1902, 330). AVEIRO, a seaport, episcopal see, and the capital of an administrative district, formerly included in the province of Beira, Portugal; on the river Vouga, and the Lisbon-Oporto railway. Pop. (1900) 9979. Aveiro is built on the southern shore of a marshy lagoon, containing many small islands, and measuring about 15 m. from north to south, with an average breadth of about 1 m. The Barra Nova, an artificial canal about 33 ft. deep, was constructed between 1801 and 1808, and gives access to the Atlantic ocean. The local industries include the preparation of sea-salt, the catching and curing of fish, especially sardines and oysters, and the gathering of aquatic plants (moliço). There is also a brisk trade in wine, oil and fruit; while the Aveiro district contains copper and lead mines, besides much good pasture-land.

Aveiro is probably the Roman Talabriga. In the 16th century it was the birthplace of João Affonso, one of the first navigators to visit the fishing-grounds of Newfoundland; and it soon became famous for its fleet of more than sixty vessels, which sailed yearly to that country, and returned laden with dried codfish. During the same century the cathedral was built, and the city was made a duchy. The title "duke of Aveiro "became extinct when its last holder, Dom José Mascarenhas e Lancaster, was burned alive for high treason, in 1759. The administrative district of Aveiro coincides with the north-western part of the province of Beira; pop. (1900) 303,169; area, 1065 sq. m.

AVELLA (anc. Abella), a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Avellino, 23 m. N.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901) 4107. It is finely situated in fertile territory and its nuts (nuces Abellanae) and fruit were renowned in Roman days. About 2 m. to the north-east lies Avella Vecchia, the ancient Abella, regarded