or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original Gospel (Urevangelium); the Pauline Luke is later and arose independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in John is idealistic: it " does not possess historical truth, and cannot and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of the 1st and 2nd century. But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der beiden Lehrbegriffe, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher's Glaubenslehre, and a vigorous reply to J. Möhler's Symbolik (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, Die christliche Lehre von der Versöhnung in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit (1838), Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Golles in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel's philosophy, a procedure which only served to obscure the truth and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (1852), Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (1853), and Die christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts (1859), works preparatory to his Kirchengeschichte, in which the change of view is specially pronounced. The Kirchengeschichte was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him. Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church on strictly historical lines, i.e. as a natural development of the religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various human causes (Development of Theology, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the history of dogma, Ausführlichere Vorlesungen über die christliche Dogmengeschichte, were published later by his son (1865-1868). " Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H. S. Nash). He has had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified his positions. A full account of F. C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, in which his work is divided into three periods: (1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) Biblical criticism," (3) Church History." See also H. S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (Leipzig, 1869); R. W. Mackay, The Tubingen School and its Antecedents (1863); A. S. Farrar, A Critical History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion (Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tübingen Historical School," in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862. (M. A. C.) BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole Normale he came under the influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college of Juilly, but in 1849 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works are:-Philosophie du Christia nisme (1835); Psychologie expérimentale (1839), new edition entitled Esprit humain et ses facultés (1859); Philosophie morale (1840); Religion et liberté (1848); La Morale de l'évangile comparée aux divers systèmes de morale (Strassburg, 1827; Paris, 1855); De l'éducation publique en France au XIX siècle (Paris, 1876). BAUTZEN (Wendish Budissin, " town "), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the Dresden-GörlitzBreslau main line of railway, and at the junction of lines from Schandau and Königswartha. The town is surrounded by walls, and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a handsome town hall, an orphanasylum, several hospitals, a mechanics' institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar factories, &c. Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made to the " arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein (1633), and, Bautzea, 1813. in the following year was burned by its commander before being the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the corps of 1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity. Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had and 21st of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of been sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the zoth in Russians and Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). calculated inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Battle.com. The position chosen by the allies as that in which to Ney and Lauriston moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from Victor operated by a wide turning movement against Barclay's Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. right rear. The advance was carried out with precision; the Bautzen itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was' now closing upon (Russians), the main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near the rear of Blücher's corps at the village of Prcititz. Napoleon at Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 24 m. N.E. of Bautzen, was once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in order to Kleist's Prussian corps, with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of Burk) lay Blücher's corps, and on moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M. Blücher's right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour Gleina (7m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as come upon the scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other troops for the left and centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to in the centre, 80,000 strong and covered by a great mass of attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose watercourses. Napoleon's right and centre approached (on a Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blücher, now broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was head against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's Luckau, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and appearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered Klix to strike the allies' right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and after a prolonged reconnaissance, advanced the main army against bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's right to be dealt with by unharmed, leaving no trophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the extreme left of the success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a variety of reasons, allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to move his artillery and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a coup manque and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's (XII.) corps, strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly country 163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded. assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a Spree and attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three mineral species, having the composition AlO(OH), (correspondcorps were directed by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) ing with alumina 73.9, water 26-1 %), and thus to be distinct corps was held back to connect with Ney, who had then reached from the crystallized aluminium hydroxides, diaspore (AIO(OH)) Weissig with the head of his column. The Guard and other and gibbsite (=hydrargillite, Al(OH)3). It was first described by general reserves were in rear of Macdonald and Marmont. P. Berthier in 1821 as "alumine hydratée de Beaux," and was Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont named beauxite by P. A. Dufrénoy in 1847 and bauxitc by easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the E. H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived other bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive from the original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), combat took place in the evening between Oudinot and the near Arles, dep. Bouches-du-Rhône in the south of France, Russian left, directed by the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's where the material has been for many years extensively mined as men made a little progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle an ore of aluminium. It is never found in a crystallized state, was more serious. The Prussians were not experienced troops, but always as earthy, clay-like or concretionary masses, often but were full of ardour and hatred of the French. Kleist made a with a pisolitic structure. In colour it varies from white through most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and Bertrand's corps yellow and brown to red, depending on the amount and the was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but part of degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific gravity Blücher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in ground and by want of room to deploy between the river and the northern Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical enemy. But Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the analyses, which have mostly been made for technical purposes, centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the show that material known as bauxite varies very widely in French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and composition, the maximum and minimum percentages of each right to sustain the shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were constituent being as follows: alumina (AI,O) 332-76-9; in possession of the French, and the allied line now stretched from water (H20) 8.6–31.4; iron oxide (Fe:03) 0-1-48-8; silica Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, Blücher and Barclay main (SiO2) 0-3-37-8; titanic acid (TiOs) up to 4. The material is taining their original positions at Pliskowitz and Gleina. The thus usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the battlefield. and hydroxides of iron in variable amounts, the presence of Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost fought which may be seen by a microscopical examination. Analyses out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive point of purer material often approximate to diaspore or gibbsite in was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was composition, and minute crystalline scales of these minerals renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep have been detected under the microscope. until the time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter- Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, stroke against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal but rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various from the ground won on the 20th, the emperor paid no more heed impurities; it is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical than to order Macdonald to support the XII corps. For in this composition and in microscopical structure. Laterite is adsecond position of the allies, which was far more formidable than Imittedly a decomposition-product of igneous or other crystalline rocks, and the same is no doubt also true of bauxite. The deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron ore interbedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in Germany. On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in the south of France (departments Bouches-du-Rhône, Ariège, Hérault, Var) and the southern United States (Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas) are often associated with limestones; in this case the origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to the chemical action of solutions of aluminium sulphate on the limestones. Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium (9.v.); the material is first purified by chemical processes, after which the aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. Bauxite is also largely used in the manufacture of alum and other aluminium salts used in dyeing. Its refractory qualities render it available for the manufacture of fire-bricks and crucibles. (L. J. S.) BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 15 m. E.S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The town carries on the manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. Under the name of Bagacum or Bavacum it was the capital of the Nervii and, under the Romans, an important centre of roads, the meeting-place of which was marked by a milestone, destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the 19th century by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered much during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern), a kingdom of southern Germany, next to Prussia the largest state of the German empire in area and population. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions, Bavaria proper, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40 m. W apart and are separated by the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse. contains an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m., making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The total population, according to the census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg have populations exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Würzburg, Fürth and Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient tribes; Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and Franks in the centre, Franks towards the west, and, in the Palatinate, Walloons. Politically, the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows: Religion. The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are Roman Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims about 29%, while Jews, and a very small number of other sects, account for the remainder. The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is altogether free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant. Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six bishops of Eichstätt, Spires, Würzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau, of whom the first three are suffragans of Bamberg. The "Old Catholic" party, under the bishop of Bonn, has failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in 1900 were as follows:-Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206; Jews, 54,928. Education.-Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic universities, Munich and Würzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a polytechnic, an academy of sciences and an academy of art. Physical Features.-Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the Alps, on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of mountains known as the Böhmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, which separate it from the kingdom of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the duchies of Saxe-CoburgGotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country mainly belongs to the basins of the Danube and the Main; by far the greater portion being drained by the former river, which, entering from Swabia as a navigable stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the Isar and the Inn from the south, and the Naab, the Altmühl and the Wörnitz from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable Agriculture. Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half till it has passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar is under cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth size. The Main traverses the northern regions, or Upper and mostly pasture. The level country, including both Lower Lower Franconia, with a very winding course and greatly Bavaria (extending northwards to the Danube) and the western facilitates the trade of the provinces. The district watered by and middle parts of Franconia, is productive of rye, oats, wheat, the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder and fruit and part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 ft. vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the Lake of In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its lakes and in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively ground. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is grown in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) bounded on the E. by the Rhine, which divides it from the grand-round Nuremberg and in the Palatinate, which also largely duchy of Baden, on the S. by Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province. The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character of the region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in the winter months considerably colder than that of England, and a good deal hotter during summer and auturan. Area and Population.—Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes are cultivated in all the provinces, but especially in the Palatinate and in the Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, where pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers. The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria. This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous country, the thinness of the population and the necessity of keeping a given extent of ground under wood of April 1871, Bavaria was incorporated with the German for the supply of fuel. More than a third of the forests are empire, reserving, however, certain separate privileges (Sonderpublic property and furnish a considerable addition to the rechte) in respect of the administration of the army, the railways revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces of and the posts, the excise duties on beer, the rights of domicile Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. and the insurance of real estate. The king is the supreme chief The forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the of the army, and matters requiring adjudication in the adjutantAlps), wild boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being general's court are referred to a special Bavarian court attached plentiful. The greater proportion of the land throughout the to the supreme imperial military tribunal in Berlin. Bavaria kingdom is in the hands of peasant proprietors, the extent of is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends forty-eight the separate holdings differing very much in different districts. deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is The largest peasant property may be about 170 acres, and the mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50. 1818, modified by subsequent acts-that of the oth of March Minerals. The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, 1828 as affecting the upper house, and those of the 4th of June iron ore, graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in 1848 and of the 21st of March 1881 as affecting the lower--and the districts of Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the is a limited monarchy, with a legislative body of two houses. Rhine Palatinate. Salt is obtained on a large scale partly from The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelsbach, according brine springs and partly from mines, the principal centres being to the rights of primogeniture, females being excluded from Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and Rosenheim. The govern- succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist. The ment monopoly which had long existed was abolished in 1867 title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive and free trade was established in salt between the members of heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, incapacity of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested chiefly in the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of in the nearest male agnate capable of ascending the throne. copper, manganesc and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous Such a regency began on the roth of June 1886, at first for King quarries of excellent marble, alabaster, gypsum and building Louis II., and after the 14th of the same month for King Otto I., stone; and the porcelain-clay is among the finest in Europe. in the person of the prince regent Luitpold. The executive To these may be added emery, steatite, barytes, felspar and power resides in the king and the responsibility for the governochre, in considerable quantities; excellent lithographic stone ment of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is Roman is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are still worked, Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital. but to an insignificant extent. The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (Kammer der Manufactures and Trade. A great stimulus was given to Reichsräte) is composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal manufacturing industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which (being of full age), (2) the ministers of the crown, (3) the archabolished the last remains of the old restrictions of the gilds, bishops of Munich, Freising and Bamberg, (4) the heads of such and gave the whole country the liberty which had been enjoyed noble families as were formerly “ immediate " so long as they by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief centres of industry retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria, (5) of a Roman are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Fürth, Erlangen, Aschaffen- Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of the presiburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and dent for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of Hof in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the hereditary counsellors (Reichsräte) appointed by the king, and Rhine port of Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware (7) of other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The industry are-Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Fürth; the two lower house (Kammer der Abgeordneten) or chamber of reprefirst especially for locomotives and automobiles, the last for tin- sentatives, consists, since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion foil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg manufactures fancy goods, of one-reckoned on the census of 1875—to every 31,500 inhabitAugsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and Munich has a ants. A general election takes place every six years, and, under great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia are the electoral law of 1906, is direct. Qualifications for the general numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is body of electors are full age of twenty-five years, Bavarian largely carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A citizenship of one year at least, and discharge of all rates and considerable quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Böhmer- taxes. Parliament must be assembled every three years, but as wald. Brewing forms an important industry, the best-known the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly called together breweries being those of Munich, Nuremberg, Erlangen and within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or property of Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco, the subject can be passed without the sanction of parliament. porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg), plate-glass, Rerenue. The following is a fairly typical statement of the sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The budget estimates (1902–1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling) :commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, Receipts. glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat Direct taxes 38, 199,000 Civil list of the hop-trade is Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports Customs and indirect the comprise sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron. 50,900,990 Ministry of Communications.-Trade is served by an excellent railway State railways 184,551,000 Royal house and of Foreign dept. 688,398 system and there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, graphs 41,665,100 Ministry of justice, 20,615,299 to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Forests and agri-. Ministry of interior. 30,055-338 Ludwigshafen. The high roads of Bavaria, many of which are cultural dues 37,395.000 Public worship and military roads laid out at the beginning of the 19th century, Imperial assign 34,667,673 extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377 m. of 62,571,605 Minister of finance 6,696,780 Contribution to imrailways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the perial exchequer. 72,647,090 hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private system of the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigs 415,282,695 222,296,253 kanal, which connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending = £20,764,135 =£11,114,813 from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmühl. There is an extensive network of telegraph and telephone lines. The public debt amounts to about £95,000,000, of which over All belong to the government post office, which forms an admini-75% was incurred for railways. strative system independent of the imperial German post office. Army.-The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the Constitution and Administration.-By the treaty of Versailles army of the German empire, with a separate administration, (23rd November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th but in time of war is under the supreme command of the German Mks. Disbursements. Mks. 5,402,475 State debt 51,323,200 taxes Posts ments emperor. The regulations applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however, observed. It consists, on a peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Würzburg respectively. The Bavarian army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, two battalions of rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, two Ulan and six Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted infantry (Jäger-zu-pferde), twelve field- and two foot-artillery regiments, three battalions of engineers, three of army service, and a balloon section; in all 60,000 men with 10,000 horses. In time of war the total force is trebled. (P. A. A.) HISTORY The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the Romans just before the opening of the Christian era, when colonies were founded among them and their land was included in the province of Raetia. During the 5th century it was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.D. 488 and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the race and origin of these people, who were certainly a new and composite social aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a small intermixture of Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably from Baja or Baya, corruptions of Bøjer, and given to them because they came from Bojerland or Bokemia. Another but less probable explanation derives the name from a combination of the old high German word uudra, meaning league, and bai, a Gothic word for both. The Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swabians. Their country bore some traces of Roman influence, and its main boundaries were the Enns, the Danube, the Lech and the Alps; but its complete settlement was a work of time. Frankish The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, probably without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 to 788 by dukes of the Agilolfing family, who were Influence, possibly of Frankish descent. For a century and a half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of the Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke Theodo I., who died in 717, were completely independent of the feeble Frankish kings. When Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of the Frankish realm he brought the Bavarians into strict dependence, and deposed two dukes successively for contumacy. Pippin the Short was equally successful in maintaining his authority, and several marriages took place between the family to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with which various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour to the supposition that they were rather the outcome of family quarrels than the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the years 739 and 748 the Bavarian law was committed to writing and supplementary clauses were afterwards added, all of which bear evident traces of Frankish influence. Thus, while the dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the duke must be chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the Frankish king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild, summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation, calls out the host, administers justice and regulates finance. There are five noble families, possibly representing a former division of the people, after whom come the freeborn, and then the freedmen. The country is divided into gaus or counties, under their counts, who are assisted by judges responsible for declaring the law. Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times; but a new era set in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to the county at the invitation of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He founded several monasteries, and a similar work was also performed by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the result that before long the bulk of the people professed ChristianChristianity and relations were established between ity. Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century witnessed indeed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in Bavaria about 734 of St Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg and Passau. Frankish conquest. Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short in 757, but soon afterwards refused to furnish a contribution to the war in Aquitaine. Moreover, during the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name, refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes, as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are obscure. Tassilo appears to have done homage in 781, and again in 787, probably owing to the presence of Frankish armies. But further trouble soon arose, and in 788 the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a charge of treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned by the king; and he then entered a monastery and formally renounced his duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a battle with the Avars in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and assimilated with that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its condition was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The Bavarians offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished their dukedom; and their incorporation with the Frankish dominions, due mainly to the unifying influence of the church, was already so complete that Charlemagne did not find it necessary to issue more than two capitularies dealing especially with Bavarian affairs. The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up with that of the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of 817 to the king of the East Franks, Louis the German, Union with it formed part of the larger territories which were Caroconfirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun, lingian Louis made Regensburg the centre of his government, empire. and was active in improving the condition of Bavaria, and providing for its security by numerous campaigns against the Slavs. When he divided his possessions in 865 it passed to his eldest son, Carloman, who had already undertaken its government, and after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive territories of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as German king in the following year. Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Frankish kingdom, passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose reign it was constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to these inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the 5th of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished in battle with these formidable enemies. For the defence of Bavaria the mark of Carinthia had been erected on the southeastern frontier, and during the reign of Louis the Child this was ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, who possessed large domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in the great fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by Conrad's successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who admitted his |
