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emphatically, but also no need for working them out to remote conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people the best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their perfect fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every beauty of musical design and tone they have never been equalled, nor is it probable that any other art can show a wider range of thought embodied in a more perfect form. In music itself there is nothing else of so wide a range without grave artistic defects from which Beethoven is entirely free. Wagnerian opera aims at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of wider range than Beethoven's that it passes beyond the bounds of pure music altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and even the apparent exceptions (such as Fidelio and his two great examples of " programme music," the Pastoral Symphony and the sonata, Les Adieux) only show how universal his conception of pure music is. Extraneous ideas had here struck him as magnificent material for instrumental music, and he never troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the better or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works of Beethoven's second period here would be to describe a library of well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further details to the articles on SONATA FORMS, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, HARMONY and INSTRUMENTATION. It remains for us to attempt to indicate the essential features of his third style, and to conclude with a survey of his influence on the history of music.

Beethoven's third style arose imperceptibly from his second. His deafness had very little to do with it, for all his epoch-making discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was already far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which would satisfy any one who depended more upon his ear than upon his imagination. It is indeed highly probable that there are no important features in Beethoven's latest style that may not be paralleled by the tendencies of all great artists who have handled their material until it contains nothing that has not been long familiar with them. Such tendencies lead to an extreme simplicity of form, underlying an elaboration of detail which may at first seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely the working out to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and natural as the form itself. The form, however, will be not merely simple, but individual. Different works will show such striking external differences of form that a criticism which applies merely a priori or historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is less form in a number of such markedly different works than in a number of works that have one scheme in common. All this is eminently the case with Beethoven's last works. The extreme simplicity of the themes of the first two movements of the quartet in B flat, op. 131, and the tremendous complexity of the texture into which they are woven, at first impress us as something mysterious and intangible rather than astonishing. The boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in broad statement and counter-statement with the allegro, is directly impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its dark harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity before its vast mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true lucidity. Such works are 'dark with excessive bright." When we enter into them they are transparent as far as our vision extends, and their darkness is that of a depth that shines as we penetrate it. In all probability only a veil of familiarity prevents our finding the same kind of difficulty in Beethoven's carlier works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works is the enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are always essential to the life of a composition, but which have very different functions and degrees of prominence in different forms and stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws attention to detail, and thus Beethoven in his middle period found its more obvious manifestations but little conducive to the breadth of designs which were not as yet sufficiently familiar to take any but the foremost place. Hence, among other interesting features of that second period, his marked preference for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note, e.g. the famous "four taps" in the C minor symphony; an identical rhythm in a melodious theme of very different character in the

G major concerto; a similar figure in the Sonata Appassionata; the first theme of the scherzo of the F major quartet, op. 59, No. 1, and the drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give thematic life to an inner part without causing it to assume such melodic interest as might distract the attention from the flow of the surface. But in proportion as polyphony loses its danger so does the prominence of such rhythmic figures decrease, until in Beethoven's last works they are no more noticeable than other kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded detail is naturally more prominent the smaller the means with which Beethoven works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus those most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony, and the Mass in D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the choral writing, almost like works of the second period as far as direct impressiveness is concerned; and in the same way the enormous pianoforte sonata, op. 106, is in its first three movements easier to follow than the extremely terse and subtle works on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A major, 101, and the two sonatas for violoncello, op. 102).

His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led Beethoven to employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works, by way of episodic contrast to passages and designs in which the form and not the texture is the main object of interest, but as the culminating expression of a condition or art in which the unity of form and texture is so perfect that the mind is free to concentrate itself on the texture alone. This union was not effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a close parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of Beethoven's early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that the chief interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold together with the perception that these fugues are based on a modern firmness and range of form, that the texture is forced upon the listener's attention by a continual series of ruthlessly logical bold strokes of harmony. From this and from the notorious violence of Beethoven's choral writing, and also from his well-known technical struggles in his years of pupilage, the easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a great master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely irreconcil. able with such plain facts as, to take but one carly example, the brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the andante of the string. quartet in C minor, op. 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonics, basses or inner parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have mastered some things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing incompletely; and where he is not orthodox it is safest to conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had he lived for another ten years he would certainly have produced an immense amount of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental works in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture and form would have dwindled away. But while this would doubtless result in such work being easier to follow and might even have given us a version of the great fugue, op. 133 (discarded from the string-quartet, op. 131), that did not surpass the bounds of practical performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by which to stigmatize as an immaturity the roughness of the polyphonic works that we know. That roughness is, like the abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his early works, the necessary condition in which such material realizes mature expression. Without it that material could receive but the academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created that permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which has arisen almost all that is true in "Romantic" music, all that is peculiar to the thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and all the perfect smoothness of Brahms's polyphony.

The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in Beethoven's later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no less incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the last quartets are more introspective than dramatic, that is only because Beethoven's dramatic sense is higher than we can realize. The subject is too large and too subtle for dogmatism to be profitable; and we cannot in Beethoven's case, as we can in Bach's, cite a complete series of illustrations of his musical

ideas from his treatment in choral music of words which them- | in order that unimportant works may not distract attention, even selves interpret the intention of the composer. There is so little when they are late and on a large scale. but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven's Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc. thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader, Pianoforte trio =Pste., V., Vc. as before, to the articles on SONATA FORMS, HARMONY, INSTRU- Pianoforte quartet Pste., V., viola and Vc. MENTATION, OPERA and Music, where he will find further

String trio =V., Va., Vc. attempts to indicate in what sense pure music can be described

String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.

Pianoforte or violin concerto - Concerto with orchestra. as dramatic and expressive of emotion.

1785. 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important material As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of for the sonatas, op. 2. Nos. 1 and 3. analysis and study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves

(Thayer's attribution of the masterly bagatelles, op. 33:

published 1803, to this period can only be rationalized an ever-deepening conviction that Beethoven, whether in range,

by some similar rough first idea.) depth and truth of thought, perfect sense of beauty, or absolute 1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very conscientiousness of exccution, is the greatest musician, per- remarkable work, anticipating Schumann's Papillons in haps the greatest artist, that ever lived. There is no means of

its humorous close. It was Beethoven's chief early lour. measuring Beethoven's influence upon subsequent music. Every 1795. 3 pfte. trios, op. 1 (Eb, G, C minor).

de-force in pianoforte playing: composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he 1796. 3pfte. sonatas, op. 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn brought about in the range of music have their most obvious 1797. String trio, op. 3: 2 violoncello sonatas, op. 5. F and G mi.. effect in the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any 1798. 3 string trios. op. 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, Op. 10 ( mi

. outbreak of vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim descent from Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher 1799. 3.violin sonatas (D. A. Eb), op. 12. Píte. sonata (Palhétique than Meyerbeer. Again, we have already referred to that

not Beethoven's title) C mi., op. 13, 2 pfte. sonatas, op. 14, confusion of thought which regards a series of works markedly

E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a string quartet different in form as containing less form than any 'number of 1801. Pianoforte concertos, op. 15 in C, op: 19 in B)-(the latter works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven's third

composed first).. Quintet for pianoforte and wind instru. period have been cited in desence of more than one “revolution,” ments, op. 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for

for pianoforte and strings), composed 1797. 6 string the purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet

quartets, op. 18 (F, G, D, C mi., A, Bb). Ist symphony (C).

op. 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi., op. 23: Fma., op. 24 succeeded in inventing. To measure Beethoven's influence is

(made into two opus-numbers by an accident in the formal like measuring Shakespeare's. It is an influence either too of the volumes). vaguely universal to name or too profoundly artistic to analyse. 1802. Pianoforte score of the Prometheus ballet, op. 24 (ousted by Perhaps the truest account of it would be that which ignored its

the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as op: 43). Sonata

in Bb. op. 22. Sonata in Ab, op: 26 (with the funeral presence in the works of ill-balanced artists, or even in the works of

march). 2 sonatas ("quasi fantasia"), op. 27. E5, C#mi. those who profited merely by an increase of technical and harmonic Sonata in D, op.28 (Pastorale not Beethoven's title). String resource

which, though effected by Beethoven, would, after the 1803. 3 violin sonatas, Op. 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, Op. 31, G, French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, almost certainly

D mi., Eb (the last appearing in 1804). have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of finding

Variations, op. 34. 15 variations and sugue on theme from expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had

Prometheus, op. 35. never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere domina- 1804. 2nd symphony (D), op. 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (Cmi.). tion, and of a permanently established new world of musical 1805. The Kreutzer" sonata, op. 47. for pfte. and violin (A) thought, and omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries,

(finale at first intended for op. 30, No. 1). the one attracted and the other partly repelled, we may, perhaps,

Waldstein " sonata for pite., op. 53 (C). First version take three later composers, Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as

of opera Leonore in three acts (with overture "No. 2 "). the leading examples of the way in which Beethoven's influence 1806. Sonata in Fop: 54. Eroica Symphony, No. 3, op. 55 (ÉS),

written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It is definitely traceable as a creative force. The depth and was just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had solemnity of Beethoven's melody and later polyphonic richness made himself emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty is a leading source of Schumann's inspiration, though Schumann's

restrained from destroying the score. It is still the longest

extant perfect design in instrumental music. The finale artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization

glorifies the material (and much of the form of the variaon a large scale. Beethoven's late polyphony is carried on by

tions, op. 35. The scherzo is the first full-sized example of Brahms to the point at which perfect smoothness of style is once

Beethoven's special type. more possible, and there is no aspect of his form which Brahms

Leonore reproduced in two acts with overture No. 3. neglects or fails to realize with that complete originality which

32 variations in C mi. (no opus-number, but a very im

portant work on the lines of a modernized chaconne). has nothing to fear from its ancestry. Wagner does not handle 1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), ap: 56, chiefly interesting the same art-forms; his task is different, but Beethoven was the

as a study for the true concerto form which had given inspiring source, not only of his purely musical sense, but also of

Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, op. 57 (F mi., Appassionała

not Beethoven's title). New overture, Leonore, No. 1, his wholc sense of dramatic contrast and fitness. When he had

composed for projected performance of the opera at shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which has so often been Prague (posthumously published as op. 138). confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to him, pre-1808. 4th plte concerto, op. 58 (G). 3 string quartets, op. 59. F. eminently in his music and more imperfectly realized in his drama,

Emi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment

to whom Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. 1 and a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege

the scherzo of No. 2). Overture to Coriolanus, op. 62. of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven 1809. 4th symphony, op. 60 (B5). Violin concerto (D), op. 61 (also are the sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony, he attains this. Beethoven alone is the cxtraneous source of his

op: 67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear. knowledge that it was possible. And it is as certain as anything

6th symphony (Pastorale), op. 68; violoncello sonata, in the history of art that there will never be a time when Beet-1810. Pianoforte score of Leonore (2nd version) published. String

op. 69 (A). 2 pianoforte trios, op. 70 (D, E!): hoven's work does not occupy the central place in a sound quartet, op. 74 (Eb, called "Harp" because of pizzicals musical mind.

passages in first movement). Fantasia, op: 77, interesting

as consisting of a long and capricious series of dramatic ANNOTATED LIST OF BEETHOVEN'S WORKS

beginnings and breakings off of themes, as if in search for a hrm idea, which

is at last found and developed as a set Up to 1823 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date of variations. This scheme thus foreshadows the

charal of composition being generally from one to three years earlier.

finale of the 9th symphony

even more significantly than the Beethoven seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once, Choral Fantasia and their immediate chronology is inextricable; whereas publication

Sonata, op.78, F# (extremely terse and subtle, and a great generally means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the C#mi.).

1811. 5th pfte concerto, op 73. E» (The Emperor not Beethoven's title). Fantasa for pfte, orchestra and chorus, op. 80. Sonata, op 81a (Les Adieux, l'absence, et le retour), first

movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to kave Vienna (4th May 1809), and the rest on his return on the 30th of January 1810. It was an anxious time both for Beethoven and his excellent royal friend, for whom he had great affection (Battle of Wagram, 6th July 1809) (We may here note that op. 81b is an unimportant and very carly sextet) The overture to bemont, op. 84; Christus am Oberge (the Mount of Olives), ep 85, oratorio (probably campo ed between 1800 and its first performance in 1803). 1812. The rest of the Eemont music, op. 84. 1st mass, op. 87 (C) (first performance, 1807).

1814. Final version of Leonore, performed as Fidelio with great alterations, skilful revi on of the libretto, very important

new material in the music and a new overture.

1815. Sonata, ep. 90 (E mi ). 1816. 7th symphony, op. 92 (A); 8th symphony, op. 93 (F) (Beethoven was planning a group of three of which the last was to be in D mi, which we hall find significant). String quartet, op. 95 (F mi). Violin sonata, op 96 (G). Pianoforte trio, op. 97 (B»); Liederkreis, op. 98. 1817. Sonata, op. 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven's " third marner"). 2 vi loncello sonatas, op 102 (C, D, the second containing Beethoven's first modern instrumental strict fugue). 1819. Arrangement for string quintet, op. 101, of C mi. trio, op. 1, No 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only to Bach's arrangements and very unlike Beethoven's former essays of the kind). Sonata, op. 106 (B), the largest and most symphonic pianoforte work extant, surpated in length only by Bach's Goldberg variations and Beethoven's 33 variations on Dabell's waltz. 1821. 25 Scotch songs accompanied by rfte, V. and Vc., ep. 108 (the first set of a large and much neglected collection, mostly posthumous, many of great interest and beauty and very Beethovenish which has shocked persons who expect sympathetic insight into folk-music to prevail over Beethoven's artistic impulse). Sonata, op. 109 (E). 1822. Sonata, op. 110 (A). Overture, Die Weihe des Hauses. of 121 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue,

published 1825. 1823. Sonata, op. 111 (C mi, the last pianoforte sonata). 33 variations on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to fifty-one musicians in Austria asing each to contribute a variation; the whole to be published for the benefit of the widows and orphans left by the war. Beethoven answered with the greatest set ever written, and it was published in a separate volume. Among the other fifty composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven,

Franz Liszt!

The mass in D (Missa Solemnis), op. 121, begun in 1818

for the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop of Olimusz, was not finished until 1526, two years after the installation

The 9th ss raphony. ep. 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and 8th symphonies), ket hes began 1817, project of setting Schiller's Freude already in Beethoven's mind before he

Jeft Bonn.

6 bagatelles, op. 126, Beethoven's last pianoforte work a very remark Me and unaccountably neglected group of carefully contrasted lyric pieces

1824. String quartet, ep. 127 ( 5, published 1826) 1825. String quartet, op 130 (E), with finale, ep, 133 (grand fugue); string quartet, 132 A mi, with slow movement in Lycan mode, a' Heliga Pantrenang on recovery from illness Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental finale to oth symphory) 1826. String quartet, op 131 (C#, mi), String quartet, op 135 (F). Now finale te op 130, Beethoven's last composition. (D. FT) AUTHORITIES-A W Thiser. Birthment Leben (1866-1850): L. Nihl, Life of Beethmen ( my trans, 1884), and Letters (Eng trans, 1560), Sir G. Grove, Bichoven and kis Symphonies (1896). and in Grove's Dictionary of Music.

BEETLE (0. Eng bity; connected with "bite "), a name commonly applied to those insects which possess horny wingcases; it is used to denote the cockroaches (@7) (black beetles). as well as the true beeties or Coleoptera (qv), the two belonging to different orders of Insecta

The adjective beetle-browed," and similarly "beetling" (of a cliff), are derived from the name of the insect From another word (0. Eng. beid, connected with "beat') comes "beetle" in the sense of a mallet, and the "beetling machine," which subjects fabrics to a hammering process.

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BEETS, NIKOLAAS (1814-1003), Dutch poet, was born at Haarlem on the 13th of September 1814; constant references in his poems and sketches show how deeply the beauty of that town and its neighbourhood impressed his imagination. He studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to the cultiva tion of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe, and his early works-Jose (1834), Kuser (1835) and Guy de Viaming (1837)—are gloomy romances of the most impassioned type. But at the very same time he was beginning in prose the composite work of humour and observation which has made him famous, and which certainly had nothing that was in the least Byronic about it. This was the celebrated Camera Obscura (1839), the most successful imaginative work which any Dutchman of the 19th century produced. This work, published under the pseudonym of "Hildebrand," goes back in its earliest inception to the year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one. It consists of complete short stories, descriptive sketches, studies of peasant life-all instinct with humour and pathos, and written in a style of great charm; it has been reprinted in countless editions. Beets became a professor at the university of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In middle life he published further collections of verse--Cornflowers (1853) and New Poems (1857)—in which the romantic melancholy was found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a gentle sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875 Beets collected his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the honorary degree of LL.D. Edin. was conferred upon him. He died at Utrecht on the 13th of March 1003.

BEFANA (Ital., corrupted from Epifania, Epiphany), the Italian female counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas benefactor (St Nicholas). On Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays the fairy godmother to the children, filling their stockings with presents. Tradition relates that she was too busy with house duties to come to the window to see the Three Wise Men of the East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the Saviour, excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged to have been punished by being obliged to look for them for ever. Her legends seem to be rather mixed, for in spite of her Santa Claus character, her name is used by Italian mothers as a bogey to frighten the babies. It was the custom to carry her efhgy through Italian towns on the eve of the Epiphany.

BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL (1757-1811), French dramatist and man of letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of November 1757. Under the name of "Cousin Jacques" he founded a periodical called Les Lunes (1785-1787). The Courrier des planètes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le firmament (1788–1792) followed. Nicodème dans la lune, ou la révolution pacifique (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests against the evils of the Revolution he escaped interference through the influence of his brother, Louis Étienne Beffroy, who was a member of the Convention. Oi La Petite Nanette (1795) and several other operas he wrote both the words and the musi His Dictionnaire néologique (3 vols. 1705-1500) of the ch..f actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the police and remained incomplete. Betiroy spent his last years in retirement, dying in Paris on the 17th of December 1811. BEGAS, KARL (1704-1851), German historical painter, was born at Heinsberg near Aix la-Chapelle. His father, a retired judge, destined him for the legal protessien, but the boy's tastes pointed definitely in another direction. Even at school he wis remarked for his wonderful skid in drawing and painting, and in 1812 he was permitted to visit Paris in order to perfect himself in his art. He studied for eighteen months in the atet er of Gros and then begin to work independently In 1814 his copy of the Madonna drila. Sedia was bought by the king of Prussia. who was attracted by the young artist and d 1 much to advance him He was engaged to paint sever ) large Biblical pictures, and in 1875, aiter his return from italy, continued to produce paintings which were placed in the churches of Bertin and

"Potsdam. Some of these were historical pieces, but the majority and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms. Many are tuberous, were representations of Scriptural incidents. Begas was also The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied to the royal gallery or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men of letters. numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin. His two to four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged son OSKAR (1828–1883) was also a painter and professor of capsule containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are painting at Berlin. REINHOLD, the sculptor, is noticed below. often large and variegated, are unequal-sided.

BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831- ), German sculptor, younger Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy, soil, son of Karl Begas, the painter, was born at Berlin on the 15th of if placed in heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon July 1831. He received his early education (1846-1851) in the as rooted, they should be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy ateliers of C. D. Rauch and L. Wic...nann. During a period of loam mixed with leaf-mould and sand. They should be stopped study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was influenced by Böcklin to keep them bushy, placed in a light situation, and thinly and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic style in sculpture. shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few weeks they This tendency was marked in the group“ Borussia," executed will require another shift. They should not be overpotted, but for the facade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor in a light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds at the art school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only will soon begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering a few months. That he was chosen, after competition, to execute sorts should be kept growing on in a temperature of from 5s to the statue of Schiller for the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a 60. by night, with a few degrees more in the day. The tuberoushigh tribute to the fame he had already acquired; and the result, rooted sorts require to be kept at rest in winter, in a medium one of the finest statues in the German metropolis, entirely temperature, almost but not quite dry. In February they should justified his selection. Since the year 1870, Begas has entirely be potted in a compost of sandy loam and leaf-mould, and placed dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but especially in Berlin. in a temperate pit until May or June, when they may be moved Among his chief works during this period are the colossal statue to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at all of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain in pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming, bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Hum- the supply of water must be again slackened; in winter the boldt, all in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick plants should be stored in a dry place secure from frost; they III. in the mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and, are increased by late summer and autumn cuttings, after being lastly, the national monument to the emperor William (see partially cut down. BERLIN), the statue of Bismarck before the Reichstag building, BEGUINES (Fr. béguine, Med. Lat. beguina, begina, beghina), and several of the statues in the Siegesallee. He was also entrusted at the present time the name of the members of certain lay with the execution of the sarcophagus of the empress Frederick. sisterhoods established in the Netherlands and Germany, the

See A. G. Meyer, " Reinhold Begas" in Künstler-Monographien, enclosed district within which they live being known as a beed. H. Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901). guinage (Lat. beginagium). The equivalent male communities,

BEGGAR, one who begs, particularly one who gains his living called also Beguines (Fr. béguins, Lat. beguini), but more usually by asking the charitable contributions of others. The word, Beghards (Lat. baghardi, beggardi, begehardi, &c., 0. Fr. bégardal, with the verbal form “to beg," in Middle English beggen, is of Flem. beggaert), have long ceased to exist. The origin of the obscure history. The words appear first in English in the 13th names Beguine and Beghard has been the subject of much century, and were early connected with “bag," with reference controversy. In the 15th century a legend arose that both name to the receptacle for alms carried by the beggars. The most and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of Pippin probable derivation of the word, and that now generally accepted, of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay communities as the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their Louvain, Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise, establishment, followed the friars in the practice of mendicancy De Begginarum apud Belgas instituto et nomine suffragium, in (see BEGUINES). It has been suggested, however, that the which he produced three documents purporting to date from origin of “beg" and " beggars ” is to be found in a rare Old the 11th and 12th centuries, which seemed conclusively to prove English word, bedecian, of the same meaning, which is apparently that the Beguines existed long before Lambert le Bègue. For connected with the Gothic bidjan, cf. German betteln; but two centuries these were accepted as genuine and are admitted between the occurrence of bedecian at the end of the 9th century as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843, and the appearance of “ beggar” and “ beg” in the 13th, there however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great change Hallmann, from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the 14th and in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history, 15th centuries. It is now universally admitted that both the see CHARITY, Poor Law and VAGRANCY.

institution and the name of the Beguines are derived from BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR, a simple card-game. An ordinary Lambert le Bègue, who died about the year 1187. The confusion pack is divided equally between two players, and the cards are caused by the spuricus documents of Puteanus, however, led, held with the backs upwards. The first player lays down his even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other suggestop card face up, and the opponent plays his top card on it, tions for the derivation of the name, e.g. from an imaginary old and this goes on alternately as long as no court-card appears; Saxon word beggen, "to beg" or "pray,” an explanation but if either player turns up a court-card, his opponent has to adopted even by Mosheim, or from bègue, “ stammering," a play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king, two to a French word of unknown origin, which only brings us back to queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player Lambert again, whose name of Le Bègue, as the chronider takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack; Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us, simply is, however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another means “the stammerer," quia balbus erat (Gesta pontificum court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and Leodiensium, C. A.D. 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave as long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to a ready handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the any court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the numerous popular names given to the Beghards—bons garçons, cards into his hand is the winner.

boni pueri, boni valeti and the like-we find also that of Lollards BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany), (from Flemish löllen, “to stammer '). a large genus (natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or About the year 1170 Lambert le Bègue, a priest of Liége, undershrubs, with about three hundred and fifty species in who had devoted his fortune to founding the hospital and church tropical moist climates, especially South America and India. of St Christopher for the widows and children of crusaders, About one hundred and fifty species are known in cultivation, conceived the idea of establishing an association of women, who.

without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a to break up, and, though certain of the male beguinages survived movement which was attended with all the manifestations of or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name what is now called a "revival." About the year 1180 Lambert of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendigathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled cants who made religion a cloak for living on charity; béguigner "Beguines" by his opponents, into a semi-conventual com- becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with munity, which he established in a quarter of the city belonging" to beg." and beghard with "beggar," a word which, according to him around his church of St Christopher. The district was to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate in the 13th century from this source (see BEGCAR). More serious small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the community. After Lambert's death (c. 1187?) the movement Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the -where it was encouraged by the saintly Louis IX.-Germany, secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were Switzerland and the countries beyond. Everywhere the com- associated. Restrictions were placed upon them by the synod munity was modelled on the type established at Liége. It of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and Eichstätt (1281), constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses, and by the synod of Béziers (1299) they were absolutely forand usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being bidden. They were again condemned by a synod held at Cologne under the government of a mistress (magistra). Women of all in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, against those "who under a pretext of feigned religion call many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause. themselves Beghards... and, hating manual labour, go about The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the begging, holding conventicles and posing among simple people community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support as interpreters of the Scriptures." Matters came to a climax at themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like. the council of Vienne in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the

main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were passed suppressing their organization and demanding their severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the pope expressly protected the female Beguine communities of the Netherlands, there was little discrimination between the orthodox and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion, the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine com

the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and 1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (1431-1447). The male communities did not survive the 14th century, even in the Netherlands, where they had maintained their original character least impaired.

The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary" sect of Beguines and Beghards" were accused of being the enterprise of the friars, and in the course of the 13th century the communities in France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen under the influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans to such an extent that in the Latin-speaking countries the tertiaries of these orders were commonly called beguini and beguinae. The very looseness of their organization, indeed, made it inevitable that the Beguine associations should follow very diverse develop ments. Some of them retained their original character; others fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ulti-munities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict with mately converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or Augustinian tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of the mystic movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing numbers from work to mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life), practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes and councils. All this tended to lower the reputation of the Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed, numerous new beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more mere almshouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many cases they had utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to nurse the sick was quite neglected, and they had, rightly or wrongly, acquired the reputation of being mere nests of beggars and women of ill fame. At the Reformation the communities were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some Catholic countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters, those in Holland (e.g. at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium preserve more faithfully the characteristics of earlier days. The beguinage of St Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand sisters, and occupies quite a distinct quarter of the city, being surrounded by a wall and moat. The Beguines wear the old Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are conspicuous for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.

It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men originated also with Lambert le Bègue. The first records are of communities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel with the female, but they were never so numerous and their degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned

In the year 1787, the council of Liége decreed that "all Beguinae desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage. and we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage aball wear a dress to disting wish them from the Beguinae."

See J. L. von Mosheim, De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius (Leipzig, 1790); E. Halimann, Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der (vol. iii, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1953), with useful excerpts from belgischen Beghinen (Berlin, 1843); J. C. L. Giesler, Eccles. Hist. documents: Du Cange, Glossarium; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo podie (3rd ed., 1897) s." Beginen," by Herman Haupt, where numerous further authorities are cited. (W. A. P.)

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BEHAIM (or BEHEM), MARTIN (1436?-1507), a navigator and geographer of great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg, according to one tradition, about 1436; according to Ghillany, as late as 1459. He was drawn to Portugal by participation in Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific reputation at the court of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the astronomer 'Regiomontanus " (ie. Johann Muller of Königsberg in Fran conia) he became (c. 1480) a member of a council appointed by King John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged introduction of the cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described by the Spanish Jew, Levi ben Gerson, in the 14th century) is a matter of controversy; his improvements in the astrolabe were perhaps limited to the introduction of handy brass instruments in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems likely that he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet been known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have accompanied Diogo Cão in his second expedition to West Africa, really undertaken in 1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15°40′ S. and Cabo Ledo still farther on. It is now disputed whether that instead of sharing in this great voyage of discovery, the Behaim's pretensions here deserve any belief; and it is suggested Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of Guinea, perhaps as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with José Visinho the

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