BERNARD, SAINT (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the to be subdued by force. Lothair, though crowned by Innocent most illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was in St Peter's, could do nothing to establish him in the Holy Set born at Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue; daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distin- in the spring of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading guished for her piety, died while Bernard was yet a boy. The Frederick of Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of arms, and his he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence, directed by which Anacletus was excommunicated. In northern Italy the him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense; by his relations, who sent him to study at Châlons in order to Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial qualify for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothair and to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the last definitely decided to join the community which Robert of vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair's last Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in 1198, he carried with him journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte his brothers and many of his relations and friends. The little Cassino, setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno, community of reformed Benedictines, which was to produce so trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against profound an influence on Western monachism (see CISTERCIANS Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the and MONASTICISM) and had seemed on the point of extinction antipope. Anacletus died on the 25th of January 1138; on the for lack of novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession 13th of March the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor, of some thirty young men of the best families of the neighbour- assuming the name of Victor. Bernard's crowning triumph in hood. Others followed their example; and the community grew the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the so rapidly that it was soon able to send off offshoots. One of result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was founded in 1915, healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on land given by peace of his monastery. Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed abbot. Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became outwardly-in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order the rough simplicity of the original buildings-into a more was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome Though nominally subject to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame of Bernard's contest with Abelard (9.0.). In intellectual and and influence of Bernard. His saintly character, his self-dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman: mortification of so severe a character that his friend, William yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard scared to face him, and when be of Champeaux, bishop of Châlons, thought it right to remonstrate appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure Es with him--and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher, condemnation. soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux. One result of Bernard's fame was the marvellous growth of the His miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninetyfrom near and far to be healed by his touch. Before long the three monasteries in connexion with Clairvaux were either abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the great world. When England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once in 1124 Pope Honorius 11.mounted the chair of St Peter, Bernard a member of the community of Clairvaux-another Bernard. was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen; abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenics he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions, III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes, press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had mounted where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the the chair of St Peter (Ep. 239). new order of Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was have drawn up; and in the following year, at the synod of Châlons- next called upon to attack the enemy without. Languedoc sur-Marne, he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges especially had become a hot bed of heresy, and at this time the brought against Henry, bishop of Verdun, by persuading the preaching of Henry of Lausanne (g.c.) was drawing thousands bishop to resign. The European importance of Bernard, however, from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and the Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south, and by disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a Louis the Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully while . Far more important, however, was his activity in the asserted the claims of Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II., following year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he and from this moment became the most influential supporter preached a crusade. The effect of his eloquence was extraof his cause. He threw himself into the contest with character ordinary. At the great meeting at Vezelay, on the 2 ist of March, istic ardour. While Rome itself was held by Anacletus, France, as the result of his sermon, King Louis Vll. of France and his England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who, queen, Elcanor of Guienne, took the cross, together with a host though banished from Rome, was-in Bernard's phrase- of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon "accepted by the world.” The pope travelled from place to exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern France, place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings wildest enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with the in persuading Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade. emperor Lothair III. at Liége. The lamentable outcome of the movement (see CRUSADES) In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome, was a hard blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand Bernard was in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with this manifestation of the hidden counsels of God, but ascribed the men of Pisa, since the pope had need of both. He accom- it to the sins of the crusaders (Ep. 288; de Consid. ü. 1). The panied Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to news of the disasters to the crusading bost first reached Bernard reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant' at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius, driven from Rome by the Angelo and, with the support of Roger of Sicily, was too strong revolution associated with the name of Arnold of Brescia, was 'The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commònly known his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied as Bernardines. the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack certain propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la Porrée (q..). From whatever cause-whether the growing jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to the rumoured failure of the crusade, the success of which he had so confidently predicted-Bernard's influence, hitherto so ruinous to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion failed of its full effect. On the news of the full extent of the disaster that had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of Suger, abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose, where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to undertake it. Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early friends. But his intellectual energy remained undimmed. He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs, and his last work, the De Consideratione, shows no sign of failing power. He died on the 20th of August 1153. The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his intellect, but of his character. Intellectually he was the child of his age, inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired by his contagious zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their superior; and in this moral superiority lay the secret of his power. The age recognized in him the embodiment of its ideal: that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and trial, in which men are but " strangers and pilgrims" (Serm. i., Epiph. n. 1; Serm. vii., Lent. n. 1); the way of grace, back to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited from the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no sympathy, and the dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into silence before his terrible invective. Yet, within the limits of his mental horizon, Bernard's vision was clear enough. His very life proves with what merciless logic he followed out the principles of the Christian faith as he conceived it; and it is impossible to say that he conceived it amiss. For all his overmastering zeal he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop the persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for heretics," the little foxes that spoil the vines," these "should be taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument," though, if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered "that he should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines" (Serm. Ixiv.). He was evidently troubled by the mob violence which made the heretics "martyrs to their unbelief." He approved the zeal of the people, but could not advise the imitation of their action, "because faith is to be produced by persuasion, not imposed by force "; adding, however, in the true spirit of his age and of his church, "it would without doubt be better that they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be allowed to draw away many other persons into their error." Finally, oblivious of the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes the steadfastness of these "dogs" in facing death to the power of the devil (Serm. Ixvi. on Canticles ii. 15). This is Bernard at his worst. At his best-and, fortunately, this is what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writingshe displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, with no touch of servility, that make him one of the most complete exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence. The author of the Imitatio drew inspiration from his writings; the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their favourite doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions. This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own | inspiration was the Bible. He was saturated in its language and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected, uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegoricallyas the fashion of the day was-it saved him from the grosser aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints, and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due meed in his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed completely in his mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral splendour of Christ; "from Him do the Saints derive the odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights" | (Ep. 464). The cause of Bernard's extraordinary popular success as a preacher can only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that survive. These were all delivered in Latin, evidently to congregations more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters, they are full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at all times. "Bernard," wrote Erasmus in his Art of Preaching, "is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art; he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and move the affections." The same is true of the letters and to an even more striking degree. They are written on a large variety of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the unlearned as to the learned. Bernard's works fall into three categories:-(1) Letters, of which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest and value for the history of the period. (2) Treatises: (a) dogmatic and polemical, De gratia et libero arbitrio, written about 1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St Augustine; De baptismo aliisque quaestionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Victore; Contra quaedam capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II. (in justification of the action of the synod of Sens); (b) ascetic and mystical, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae, his first work, written perhaps about 1121; De diligendo Deo (about 1126); De conversione ad clericos, an address to candidates for the priesthood; De Consideratione, Bernard's last work, written about 1148 at the pope's request for the edification and guidance of Eugenius III.; (c) about monasticism, Apologia ad Guilelmum, written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; De laude novae militiae ad milites templi (c. 1132-1136); De precepto et dispensatione, an answer to various questions on monastic conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St Peter at Chartres (some time before 1143); (d) on ecclesiastical government, De moribus et officio episcoporum, written about 1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the De Consideratione mentioned above; (e) a biography, De vita et rebus gestis S. Malachiae, Hiberniae episcopi, written at the request of the Irish abbot Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the 12th century; (f) sermons-divided into Sermones de tempore; de sanctis; de diversis; and eighty-six sermons, in Cantica Canticorum, an allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of Solomon; (g) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard survive, e.g. Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus rex admirabilis, Jesu decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum. Of these the three first are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated and are used in Protestant churches. St Bernard's works were first published in, anything like a complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title Seraphica melliflui devotique doctoris S. Bernardi scripta, edited by André Bocard; the first really critical and complete edition is that of Dom J. Mabillon Sandi Bernardi opp. &c. (Paris, 1667, improved and enlarged in 1690, and again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719), reprinted by J. P. Migne, Patrolog. lat. (Paris, 1859). There is an English translation of Mabillon's edition, including, however, only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs, with the biographical and other prefaces, by Samuel J. Eales (4 vols., London, 1889-1895). See further Leopold Janauschek, Bibliographia Bernardina (Vienna, 1891), which includes 2761 BERNARD OF CHARTRES (1080 ?-1167), surnamed SYLVESTRIS, Scholastic philosopher, described by John of Salisbury as perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi. He and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the 11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction. Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a "return to Nature" which curiously anticipates the humanism of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, iv. 35) attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant fragments of Bernard's writings are from a treatise Megacosmus and Microcosmus (edited by C. S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876). The source of Bernard's inspiration was Plato's Timaeus. He maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a symbolism of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and likeness. See SCHOLASTICISM; also V. Cousin, Œuvres inédites of Abelard (Paris, 1836); Hauréau, Philosophie scolastique, i. 396 foll. BERNARD, CHARLES DE, whose full name was PIERRE MARIE CHARLES DE BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE (18041850), French writer, was born at Besancon on the 25th of February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose Peau de chagrin he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction, remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian bourgeoisie. The best of these are Le Naud gordien (1838), containing among other short stories Une Aventure de magistrat, from which Sardou drew his comedy of the Pommes du voisin; Gerfaut (1838), considered his masterpiece; Les Ailes d'Icare (1840), La Peau du lion (1841) and Le Gentilhomme campagnard (1847). His Euvres complètes (12 vols.), which appeared after his death on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies written in collaboration with "Léonce" (C. H. L. Laurenço, 18051862). A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is prefixed to Un Beau-père in this collection. In W. M. Thackeray's Paris Sketch-book ("On some fashionable French novels") there is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry James in French Poets and Novelists (1884). BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878), French physiologist, was born on the 12th of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near Villefranche. He received his early education in the Jesuit school of that town, and then proceeded to the college at Lyons, which, however, he soon left to become assistant in a druggist's shop. His leisure hours were devoted to the composition of a vaudeville comedy, La Rose du Rhône, and the success it achieved moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, Arthur de Bretagne. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed with this play and an introduction to Saint-Marc Girardin, but the critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession, and urged him rather to take up the study of medicine. This advice he followed, and in due course became interne at the Hôtel Dieu. In this way he was brought into contact with the great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was physician to the hospital, and whose official préparateur at the Collège de France he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was appointed his deputy-professor at the collège, and in 1855 he succeeded him as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the first occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the Sorbonne. There no laboratory was provided for his use, but Louis Napoleon, after an interview with him in 1864, supplied the deficiency, at the same time building a laboratory at the natural history museum in the Jardin des Plantes, and estab lishing a professorship, which Bernard left the Sorbonne to accept in 1868-the year in which he was admitted a member of the Institute. He died in Paris on the roth of February 1878 and was accorded a public funeral-an honour which had never before been bestowed by France on a man of science. Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of the pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great significance in the process of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for experimental physiology from the Academy of Sciences. A second investigation-perhaps his most famouswas on the glycogenic function of the liver; in the course of the he was led to the conclusion, which throws light on the causation of diabetes, that the liver, in addition to secreting bile, is the seat of an "internal secretion, " by which it prepares sugar at the expense of the elements of the blood passing through it. A third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor system While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced in the temperature of various parts of the body by section of the nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division of the cervical sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation and more forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of the head, and a few months afterwards he observed that electrical excitation of the upper portion of the divided nerve had the contrary effect. In this way he established the existence of vaso-motor nerves-both vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor. The study of the physiological action of poisons was also a favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular of his results, the most striking of which were obtained in the to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements ten years from about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the recognized scientific publications; but the full exposition of his views, and even the statement of some of the original facts, can only be found in his published lectures. The various series Introduction à la médecine expérimentale (1865), and Physiologie of these Leçons fill seventeen octavo volumes. He also published générale (1872). in London in 1899. publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphiné on the 1st of September and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphiné, whence be afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced his Histoire abrégée de l'Europe, which he continued monthly till December 1688. In 1692 he began his Lettres historiques, con- | taining an account of the most important transactions in Europe; he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his Bibliothèque universelle in 1691, Bernard wrote the greater part of the twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he collected and published Actes et négociations de la paix de Ryswic, in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began a continuation of Bayle's Nouvelles de la république des lettres, which continued till December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement to Moreri's dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he resumed his Nouvelles de la république des lettres, and continued it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises, one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of religion (1714). BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1820-1882), English international lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court, Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January 1820. He was educated at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. Graduating B.A. in 1842, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian scholar and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer (afterwards Lord Selborne), was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in church questions, and was one of the founders of the Guardian. In 1852 he was elected to the new professorship of international law and diplomacy at Oxford, attached to All Souls' College, of which he afterwards was made a fellow. But besides his duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of non-collegiate work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in 1871 he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States, and signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted Sir Roundell Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva. In 1874 he resigned his professorship at Oxford, but as member of the university of Oxford commission of 1876 he was mainly responsible for bringing about the compromise ultimately adopted between the university and the colleges. Bernard's reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he was an original member of the Institut de Droit International (1873). His published works include An Historical Account of the Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War (London, 1870), and many lectures on international law and diplomacy. BERNARD, SIMON (1779–1839), French general of engineers, was born at Dôle, educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and entered the army in the corps of engineers. He rose rapidly, and served (1805-1812) as aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was wounded in the retreat after Leipzig, and distinguished himself the same year (1813) in the gallant defence of Torgau against the allies. After the emperor's fall he emigrated to the United States, where, being made a brigadier-general of engineers, he executed a number of extensive military works for the government, notably at Fortress Monroe, Va., and around New York, and did a large amount of the civil engineering connected with the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Delaware Breakwater. He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, was made a lieutenant-general by Louis Philippe, and in 1836 served as minister of war. BERNARD, ŞIR THOMAS, BART. (1750-1818), English social reformer, was born at Lincoln on the 27th of April 1750, the younger son of Sir Francis Bernard, 1st bart. (1711-1779), who as governor of Massachusetts Bay (1760-1770) played a responsible part in directing the British policy which led to the revolt of the American colonies. On the death of his elder brother in 1810, Bernard succeeded to the baronetcy conferred on his father in 1769. His early education was obtained in America, partly at Harvard, in which college his father took a great interest. He then acted as confidential secretary to his father during the troubles which led (1769) to the governor's recall, and accompanied Sir Francis to England, where he was called to the bar, and practised as a conveyancer. He married a rich wife, and acquired a considerable fortune, and then devoted most of his time to social work for the benefit of the poor. He was treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, in the concerns of which he took an important part. He helped to establish in 1796 the "Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing the Comforts of the Poor," in 1800 a school for indigent blind, and in 1801 a fever institution. He was active in promoting vaccination, improving the conditions of child labour, advocating rural allotments, and agitating against the salt duties. He took great interest in education, and with Count Rumford he was an originator of the Royal Institution in London. He died without issue on the 1st of July 1818. BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST (1380-1444), Franciscan friar and preacher, was born of a noble family in 1380. His parents died in his childhood, and on the completion of his education he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals, and thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1402 he entered the Franciscan order in the strict branch called Observant, of which he became one of the chief promoters (see FRANCISCANS). Shortly after his profession the work of preaching was laid upon him, and for more than thirty years he preached with wonderful effect all over Italy, and played a great part in the religious revival of the beginning of the 15th century. In 1437 he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans. He refused three bishoprics. He died in 1444 at Aquila in the Abruzzi, and was canonized in 1450. The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, His Life will be found in the Bollandists and in Lives of the Saints was printed at Lyons in 1501; later ones in 1636, 1650 and 1745. on the 20th of May; a good modern biography has been written by Paul Thureau-Dangin (1896), and translated into English by Gertrude von Hügel (1906). (E. Č. B.) BERNAUER, AGNES (d. 1435), daughter of an Augsburg baker, was secretly married about 1432 to Albert (1401-1460), son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria-Munich. Ignorant of the fact that this union was a lawful one, Ernest urged his son to marry, and reproached him with his connexion with Agnes. Albert then declared she was his lawful wife; and subsequently, during his absence, she was seized by order of Duke Ernest and condemned to death for witchcraft. On the 12th of October 1435 she was drowned in the Danube near Straubing, in which town her remains were afterwards buried by Albert. This story lived long in the memory of the people, and its chief interest lies in its literary associations. It has afforded material for several dramas, and Adolf Böttger, Friedrich Hebbel and Otto Ludwig have each written one entitled Agnes Bernauer. BERNAY, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, on the left bank of the Charentonne, 31 m. W.N.W. of Evreux, on the Western railway between that town and Lisieux. Pop. (1906) 5973. It is beautifully situated in the midst of green wooded hills, and still justifies Madame de Stael's description of it as a basket of flowers." Of great antiquity, it possesses numerous quaint wooden houses and ancient ecclesiastical buildings of considerable interest. The abbey church is now used as a market, and the abbey, which was founded by Judith of Brittany carly in the 11th century, and underwent a restoration in the 17th century, serves for municipal and legal purposes. The church of Ste Croix, which has a remarkable marble figure of the infant Jesus, dates from the 14th and 15th centuries, that of Notre-Dame de la Couture, which preserves some good stained glass, from the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Bernay has a sub-prefecture, a communal college, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and a board of trade-arbitrators. Among the industrial establishments of the place are manufactories of cotton and woollen goods, bleacheries and dye-works. Large numbers of Norman horses are sold in Lent, at the fair known as the Foire fleurie, and there is also a trade in grain. Bernay grew up round the Benedictine abbey mentioned above, and early in the 13th century was the seat of a viscount. The town, formerly fortified, was besieged by Bertrand du Ġuesclin, constable of France, in Bernburg is of great antiquity. The Bergstadt was fortified 1378; it was taken several times by the English during the first by Otto III. in the roth century, and the new town was founded half of the 15th century, and by Admiral de Coligny in 1563. in the 13th. For a long period the different parts were under The fortress was razed in 1589. separate municipalities, the new town uniting with the old in BERNAYS, JAKOB (1824-1881), German philologist and 1560, and the Bergstadt with both in 1824. Prince Frederick philosophical writer, was born at Hamburg of Jewish parents removed the ducal residence to Ballenstedt in 1765. on the 11th of September 1824. His father, Isaac Bernays BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER, 2ND BARON (1469-1533), (1792–1849), a man of wide culture, was the first orthodox English translator, was born probably at Tharfield, HertfordGerman rabbi to preach in the vernacular. Jakob studied from shire, about 1469. His father was killed at Barnet in 1471, 1844 to 1848 at the university of Bonn, the philological school and he inherited his title in 1474 from his grandfather, Joha of which, under Welcker and Ritschl (whose favourite pupil Bourchier, who was a descendant of Edward III. . It is supposed Bernays became), was the best in Germany. In 1853 he accepted that he was educated at Oxford, perhaps at Balliol. His political the chair of classical philology at the newly founded Jewish life began early, for in 1484 he was implicated in a premature theological college (the Fränkel seminary) at Breslau, where he attempt to place Henry, duke of Richmond (afterwards formed a close friendship with Mommsen. In 1866, when Henry VII.), on the throne, and fled in consequence to Brittany. Ritschl left Bonn for Leipzig, Bernays returned to his old uni- In 1497 he helped to put down an insurrection in Cornwall versity as extraordinary professor and chief librarian. He and Devonshire, raised by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and remained at Bonn until his death on the 26th of May 1881. His from this time was in high favour at court. He accompanied chief works, which deal mainly with the Greek philosophers, Henry VIII. to Calais in 1513, and was a captain of pioneers are: Die Lebensbeschreibung des J. J. Scaliger (1855); Über at the siege of Therouanne. In the next year he was again sent das Phokylidische Gedicht (1856); Die Chronik des Sulpicius to France as chamberlain to the king's sister Mary on her marriage Severus (1861); Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im Verhältniss z: with Louis XII., but he soon returned to England. He had seinen übrigen Werken (1863); Theophrastos' Schrift über been given the reversion of the office of lord chancellor, Frömmigkeit (1866); Die Heraklitischen Briefe (1869); Lucian and in 1916 he received the actual appointment. In 1518 he und die Cyniker (1879); Zwei Abhandlungen über die Aristole- was sent to Madrid to negotiate an alliance with Charles of lische Theorie des Dramas (1880). The last of these was a Spain. He sent letters to Henry chronicling the bull-fights and republication of his Grundzüge der verlorenen Abhandlungen des other doings of the Spanish court, and to Wolsey complaining Aristoteles über die Wirkung der Tragödie (1857), which aroused of the expense to which he was put in his position as ambassador. considerable controversy. In the next year he returned to England, and with his wife See notices in Biographisches Jahrbuch für Alterthumskunde (1881), Catherine Howard, daughter of the duke of Norfolk, was present and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xlvi. (1992), art, in Jewish in 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. But his affairs were Encyclopaedia; also Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. iii. 176 (1908). greatly embarrassed. He was harassed by lawsuits about his His brother, MICHAEL BERNAYS (1834–1897), was born in Hertfordshire property and owed the king sums he was unable Hamburg on the 27th of November 1834. He studied first law to repay. Perhaps in the hope of repairing his fortune, he and then literature at Bonn and Heidelberg, and obtained a accepted the office of deputy of Calais, where he spent the rest considerable reputation by his lectures on Shakespeare at of his life in comparative leisure, though still harassed by his Leipzig and an explanatory text to Beethoven's music to debts, and died on the 16th of March 1533. Egmont. Having refused an invitation to take part in the editor- His translation of Syr Johan Froyssart of the Cronycles of ship of the Preussiche Jahrbücher, in the same year (1866) he England, France, Spayne, Portyngale, Scotland, Brclayne, published his celebrated Zur Kritik und Geschichte des Goethe- Flounders: and other places adjoynynge, was undertaken at the schen-Textes. He confirmed his reputation by his lectures at the request of Henry VIII., and was printed by Richard Pynson in university of Leipzig, and in 1873 accepted the post of extra- two volumes dated 1523 and 1525. It was the most considerable ordinary professorofGerman literature at Munich specialiy created historical work that had yet appeared in English, and exercised for him by Louis II. of Bavaria. In 1874 he became an ordinary great influence on 16th-century chroniclers. Berners tells us in professor, a position which he only resigned in 1889 when he his prefaces of his own love of histories of all kinds, and in the settled at Carlsruhe. He died at Carlsruhe on the 25th of introduction to his story of Arthur of Little Britain he excuses February 1897. At an early age he had embraced Christianity, its "fayned mater” and “many unpossybylytees ” on the whereas his brother Jakob remained a Jew. Among his other ground that other well reputed histories are equally incredible publications were: Briefe Goethes an F. A. Wolf (1868); Zur He goes on to excuse his deficiencies by saying that he knew Enstehungsgeschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare (1872); an himself to be unskilled in the "facundyous arte of retoryke," introduction to Hirzel's collection entitled Der junge Goethe and that he was but a "lerner of the language of Frensshe." (1875); and he edited a revised edition of Voss's trans- The want of rhetoric is not to be deplored. The style of his lation of the Odyssey. From his literary remains were translation is clear and simple, and he rarely introduces French published Schriften zur Kritik und Lilleraturgeschichle (1895-words or idioms. Two romances from the French followed: 1899). The Boke of Duke Huon of Burdeux (printed 1534? by Wynkya BERNBURG, a town in the duchy of Annalt, Germany, de Worde), and The Hystory of the Moost noble and salyausi the Saale, 29 m. N. by W. from Halle by rail , formerly the knight Arthur of lytell brylaync. His other two translations, capital of the now incorporated duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg. The Castell of Love (printed 1540), from the Carcel de Amer di Pop. (1900) 34,427; (1905) 34,929. It consists of four parts, Diego de San Pedro, and The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurdisas the Altstadt or old town, the Bergstadt or hill town, the Neustadt (completed six days before his death, printed 1534), from a or new town, and the suburb of Waldau-the Bergstadt on the French version of Antonio Guevara's book, are in a different right and the other three on the left of the river Saale, which is manner. The Golden Boke.gives Berners a claim to be a pioneer crossed by a massive stone bridge. It is a well-built city, the of Euphuism, although Lyly was probably acquainted with principal public buildings being the government house, the church Guevara not through his version, but through Sir Thomas of St Mary, the gymnasium and the house of correction. The North's Dial of Princes. Berners is also credited with a book castle, formerly the ducal residence, is in the Bergstadt, defended on the duties of the inhabitants of Calais, which Mr Sidney Lee by moats, and surrounded by beautiful gardens. Bernburg is thinks may be identical with the ordinance for watch and ward the seat of considerable industry, manufacturing machinery of Calais preserved in the Cotton MSS. and with a lost comedy, and boilers, sugar, pottery and chemicals, and has lead and Ite in vineam meam, which used to be acted at Calais after zinc smelting. Market-gardening is also extensively carried vespers. on, and there is a large river traffic in grain and agricultural A biographical account of Berriers is to be found in Mr Staney produce. Lee's introduction to Huon of Bourdeaux (Early English Text Society, |
