zoth of September 1880. He made his way back to Herat, where | inspector of the public library at Avignon, and from 1812 to he remained for some time unmolested. In the summer of 1881 he again invaded Afghanistan, and on the anniversary of the battle of Maiwand obtained a signal victory over Abdur Rahman's lieutenants, mainly through the defection of a Durani regiment. Kandahar fell into his hands, but Abdur Rahman now took the field in person, totally defeated Ayub, and expelled him from Herat. He took refuge in Persia, and for some time lived quietly in receipt of an allowance from the Persian government. In 1887 internal troubles in Afghanistan tempted him to make another endeavour to seize the throne. Defeated and driven into exile, he wandered for some time about Persia, and in November gave himself up to the British agent at Meshed. He was sent to India to live as a state prisoner.

1815 he held the same position at Nancy. The Restoration government at first suspected him as a Bonapartist, but at length granted him a pension. From that time he occupied himself in lecturing and the publication of philosophical works. In the Compensations he sought to prove that, on the whole, happiness and misery are equally balanced, and therefore that men should accept the government which is given them rather than risk the horrors of revolution. "Le principe de l'inégalité naturelle-et essentielle dans les destinées humaines conduit inévitablement au fanatisme révolutionnaire ou au fanatisme religieux." The principles of compensation and equilibrium are found also in the physical universe, the product of matter and force, whose cause is God. Force, naturally expansive and operating on the homogeneous atoms which constitute elemental matter, is subject to the law of equilibrium, or equivalence of

this law may be divided into three stages-the physical, the physiological, the intellectual and moral. The immaterial in man is the expansive force inherent in him. Moral and political phenomena are the result of the opposing forces of progress and preservation, and their perfection lies in the fulfilment of the law of equilibrium or universal harmony. This may be achieved in seven thousand years, when man will vanish from the world. In an additional five thousand, a similar equilibrium will obtain in the physical sphere, which will then itself pass away. In addition to his philosophical work, Azals studied music under his father, Pierre Hyacinthe Azais (1743-1796), professor of music at Sorèze and Toulouse, and composer of sacred music in the style of Gossec. He wrote for the Revue musicale a series of articles entitled Acoustique fondamentale (1831), containing an ingenious, but now exploded, theory of the vibration of the air. His other works are: Système universel (8 vols., 1812); Du Sort de l'homme (3 vols., 1820); Cours de philosophie (8 vols., 1824), reproduced as Explication universelle (3 vols., 1826-1828); Jeunesse, maturité, religion, philosophie (1837); De la phrénologie, du magnétisme, et de la folie (1843).

AYUNTAMIENTO, the Spanish name for the district over which a town council has administrative authority; it is used also for a town council, and for the town-hall. The word is de-action and reaction. The development of phenomena under rived from the Latin adjungere, and originally meant "meeting." In some parts of Spain and in Spanish America the town council was called the cabildo or chapter, from the Latin capitulum. The ayuntamiento consisted of the official members, and of regidores or regulators, who were chosen in varying proportions from the "hidalgos" or nobles (hijos de algo, sons of somebody) | and the "pecheros," or commoners, who paid the pecho, or personal tax; pecho (Lat. pectus) is in Spanish the breast, and then by extension the person. The regidores of the ayuntamientos, or lay cabildos, were checked by the royal judge or corregidor, who was in fact the permanent chairman or president. The distinction between hidalgo and pechero has been abolished in modern Spain, but the powers and the constitution of ayuntamientos have been subject to many modifications. AYUTHIA, a city of Siam, now known to the Siamese as Krung Kao or "the Old Capital," situated in 100° 32′ E., 14° 21' N. Pop. about 10,000. The river Me Nam, broken up into a network of creeks, here surrounds a large island upon which stand the ruins of the famous city which was for more than four centuries the capital of Siam. The bulk of the inhabitants live in the floating houses characteristic of lower Siam, using as thoroughfares the creeks to the edges of which the houses are moored. The ruins of the old city are of great archaeological interest, as are the relics, of which a large collection is housed in the local museum. Outside the town is an ancient masonry enclosure for the capture of elephants, which is still periodically used. Ayuthia is on the northern main line of the state railways, 42 m. from Bangkok. Great quantities of paddi are annually sent by river and rail to Bangkok, in return for which cloth and other goods are imported to supply the wants of the agriculturist peasantry. There is no other trade. Ayuthia is the chief town of one of the richest agricultural provincial divisions of Siam and is the headquarters of a high commissioner. The government offices occupy spacious buildings, once a royal summer retreat; the government is that of an ordinary provincial division (Monton).

Historically Ayuthia is the most interesting spot in Siam. Among the innumerable ruins may be seen those of palaces, pagodas, churches and fortifications, the departed glories of which are recorded in the writings of the early European travellers who first brought Siam within the knowledge of the West, and laid the foundations of the present foreign intercourse and trade. The town was twice destroyed by the Burmese, once in 1555 and again in 1767, and from the date of the second destruction it ceased to be the capital of the country.

AZAÏS, PIERRE HYACINTHE (1766-1845), French philosopher, was born at Sorèze and died at Paris. He spent his early years as a teacher and a village organist. At the outbreak of the Revolution he viewed it with favour, but was soon disgusted at the violence of its methods. A critical pamphlet drew upon him the hatred of the revolutionists, and it was not until 1806 that he was able to settle in Paris. In 1809 he published his great work, Des Compensations dans les destinées humaines (5th ed. 1846), which pleased Napoleon so much that he made its author professor at St Cyr. In 1811 he became

AZALEA, a genus of popular hardy or greenhouse plants, belonging to the heath order (Ericaceae), and scarcely separable botanically from Rhododendron. The beautiful varieties now in cultivation have been bred from a few originals, natives of the hilly regions of China and Japan, Asia Minor, and the United States. They are perhaps unequalled as indoor decorative plants. They are usually increased by grafting the half-ripened shoots on the stronger-growing kinds, the shoots of the stock and the grafts being in a similarly half-ripened condition, and the plants being placed in a moist heat of 65°. Large plants of inferior kinds, if healthy, may be grafted all over with the choicer sorts, so as to obtain a large specimen in a short time. They require a rich and fibrous peat soil, with a mixture of sand to prevent its getting water-logged. The best time to pot azaleas is three or four weeks after the blooming is over. The soil should be made quite solid to prevent its retaining too much water. To produce handsome plants, they must while young be stopped as required. Specimens that have got leggy may be cut back just before growth commences. The lowest temperature for them during the winter is about 35°, and during their season of growth from 55° to 65° at night, and 75° by day, the atmosphere being at the same time well charged with moisture. They are liable to the attacks of thrips and red spider, which do great mischief if not promptly destroyed.

The following are some well-known species:-A. arborescens (Pennsylvania), a deciduous shrub 10-20 ft. high; A. calendulacea (Carolina to Pennsylvania), a beautiful deciduous shrub 2-6 ft. high, with yellow, red, orange and copper-coloured flowers; A. hispida, a North American shrub, 10-15 ft. high, flowers white edged with red; A. indica (China), the so-called Indian azalea, a shrub 3-6 ft. or more high, the original of numerous single and double varieties, many of the more vigorous of which are hardy in southern England and Ireland; A. nudiflora, a North American shrub, 3-4 ft. high, which hybridizes freely with A. calendulacea, A. pontica and others, to produce single and

double forms of a great variety of shades; A. pontica (Levant, | of the faithful. I will show thee a better way,' replied the Caucasus, &c.), 4-6 ft. high, with numerous varieties differing stranger; let a crier cry aloud "God is most great, &c."' On in the colour of the flowers and the tint of the leaves; A. sinensis awaking, Abdallah went to Mahomet and told him his dream," (China and Japan), a beautiful shrub, 3-4 ft. high, with orange- and Azan was thereupon instituted. red or yellow bell-shaped flowers, hardy in the southern half of England, large numbers of varieties being in cultivation under the name of Japanese azaleas.

Pius VII. to Rome after the fall of Napoleon, Cesare d'Azeglio, general congress of the powers on the Italian question. When was sent as special envoy to the Vatican, and he took his son, war between Piedmont and Austria appeared inevitable he rethen sixteen years of age, with him as an extra attaché. Young turned to Italy, and was sent as royal commissioner by Cavour Massimo was given a commission in a cavalry regiment, which to Romagna, whence the papal troops had been expelled. After he soon relinquished on account of his health. During his the peace of Villafranca, d'Azeglio was recalled with orders to residence in Rome he had acquired a love for art and music, withdraw the Piedmontese garrisons; but he saw the danger of and he now determined to become a painter, to the horror of allowing the papal troops to reoccupy the province, and after his family, who belonged to the stiff and narrow Piedmontese a severe inner struggle left Bologna without the troops, and aristocracy. His father reluctantly consented, and Massimo interviewed the king. The latter approved of his action, and settled in Rome, devoting himself to art. He led an abstemious said that his orders had not been accurately expressed; thus lise, maintaining himself by his painting for several years. But Romagna was saved. That same year he published a pamphlet he was constantly meditating on the political state of Italy. in French entitled De la Politique et du droit chrétien au point In 1830 he returned to Turin, and after his father's death in 1831 de vue de la question ilalienne, with the object of inducing removed to Milan. There he remained for twelve years, moving Napoleon III. to continue his pro-Italian policy. Early in 1860 in the literary and artistic circles of the city. He became the Cavour appointed him governor of Milan, evacuated by the intimate of Alessandro Manzoni the novelist, whose daughter Austrians after the battle of Magenta, a position which he held he married; thenceforth literature became his chicf occupation with great ability. But, disapproving of the government's instead of art, and he produced two historical novels, Niccold policy with regard to Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition and the dei Lapi and Ellore Fieramosca, in imitation of Manzoni, and with occupation by Piedmont of the kingdom of Naples as inopporpronounced political tendencies, his object being to point out tune, he resigned office. the evils of foreign domination in Italy and to reawaken national The death of his two brothers in 1862 and of Cavour in 1861 feeling. In 1845 he visited Romagna as an unauthorized political caused Massimo great grief, and he subsequently led a comenvoy, to report on its conditions and the troubles which he paratively retired life. But he took part in politics, both as a foresay would break out on the death of Pope Gregory XVI. deputy and a writer, his two chief subjects of interest being The following year he published his famous pamphlet Degli the Roman question and the relations of Piedmont (now the ultimi casi di Romagna at Florence, in consequence of which kingdom of Italy) with Mazzini and the other revolutionists. he was expelled from Tuscany. He spent the next few months In his opinion Italy must be unified by means of the Francoin Rome, sharing the general enthusiasm over the supposed Piedmontese army alone, all connexion with the conspirators liberalism of the new pope, Pius IX:; like V. Gioberti and Balbo being eschewed, while the pope should enjoy nominal sovereignty he believed in an Italian confederation under papal auspices, over Rome, with full spiritual independence, the capital of Italy and was opposed to the Radical wing of the Liberal party. His being established elsewhere, but the Romans being Italian citizens political activity increased, and he wrote various other pamphlets, (see his letters to E. Rendu and his pamphlet Le questioni among which was I lutti di Lombardia (1848).

urgenti). He strongly disapproved of the convention of 1864 On the outbreak of the first war of independence, d'Azeglio between the Italian government and the pope. The last few years donned the papal uniform and took part under General Durando of d'Azeglio's life were spent chiefly at his villa of Cannero, where in the defence of Vicenza, where he was severely wounded. He he set to work to write his own memoirs. He died of fever on retired to Florence to recover, but as he opposed the democrats the 15th of January 1866. who ruled in Tuscany, he was cxpelled from that country for the Massimo d'Azeglio was a very attractive personality, as well second time. He was now a famous man, and early in 1849 as an absolutely honest patriot, and a characteristic example Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, invited him to form a cabinet. of the best type of Piedmontese aristocrat. He was cautious But realizing how impossible it was to renew the campaign, and and conservative; in his general ideas on the liberation of Italy "not having the heart to sign, in such wretched internal and he was wrong, and to some extent he was an amateur in politics, external conditions, a treaty of peace with Austria” (Corre- but of his sincerity there is no doubt. As an author his political spondance politique, by E. Rendu), he refused. After the defeat writings are trenchant and clear, but his novels are somewhat of Novara(23rd of March 1849),

Charles Albert abdicated and was heavy and old-fashioned, and are interesting only if one reads succeeded by Victor Emmanuel II. D'Azeglio was again called the political allusions between the lines. on to form a cabinet, and this time, although the situation was Besides a variety of newspaper articles and pamphlets, d'Azeglio's even more difficult, he accepted, concluded a treaty of peace, chief works are the two novels Ettore Fieramosca (183,3)and Niccolo del dissolved the Chamber, and summoned a new one to ratify it' La pi(1841), and a volume of autobiographical memoirs entitled I Miei The treaty was accepted, and d'Azeglio continued in office for unfortunately incomplete. Sce in addition to the Ricordi, L. Carpi's the next three years. While all the rest of Italy was a prey to Il Risorgimento Italiano,vol.i. pp. 288 sq. and the Soutenirs historiques despotism, in Piedmont the king maintained the constitution of Constance d'Azeglio, Massimo's niece (Turin, 1884). (L. V.) intact in the face of the general wave of reaction. D'Azeglio AZERBAIJĀN (also spelt ADERBIJAN; the Azerbādegan of conducted the affairs of the country with tact and ability, medicval writers,the Athropalakanand Atropaleneof theancients), improving its diplomatic relations, and opposing the claims of the north-western and most important province of Persia. It is the Roman Curia. He invited Count Cavour, then a rising

young separated from Russian territory on the N. by the river Aras politician, to enter the ministry in 1850. Cavour and Farini, (Araxes), while it has the Caspian Sea, Gilan and Khamseh also a member of the cabinet, made certain declarations in the (Zenjän) on the E., Kurdistan on the S., and Asiatic Turkey Chamber (May 1852) which led the ministry in the direction of on the W. Its area is estimated at 32,000 sq. m.; its population an alliance with Rattazzi and the Left. Of this d’Azeglio dis- at 14 to 2 millions, comprising various races, as Persians proper, approved, and therefore resigned office, but on the king's request Turks, Kurds, Syrians, Armenians, &c. The country is superior he formed a new ministry, excluding both Cavour and Farini. in fertility to most provinces of Persia, and consists of a regular In October, however, owing to ill-health and dissatisfaction with succession of undulating eminences, partially cultivated and some of his colleagues, as well as for other reasons not quite clear, opening into extensive plains. Near the centre of the province he resigned once more and retired into private life, suggesting the mountains of Sahand rise in an accumulated mass to the height Cavour to the king as his successor.

cf 12,000 st. above the sea. The highest mountain of the province For the next four years he lived modestly at Turin, devoting is in its eastern part, Mount Savelan, with an elevation of 15.792 himself once more to art, although he also continued to take ft., and the Talish Mountains, which run from north to south, an active interest in politics, Cavour always consulting him on parallel to and at no great distance from the Caspian, have an matters of moment. In 1855 he was appointed director of the altitude of 9000 ft.. The principal rivers are the Aras and Kizil

Turin art gallery. In 1859 he was given various political missions, Uzain, both receiving numerous tributaries and flowing into the including one to Paris and London to prepare the basis for a Caspian, and the Jaghalu, Tatava, Murdi, Aji and others, which

with regard to the hydroxyl group, and if this be prevented it | obtained by P. Griess (Ann., 1862, 121, p. 258). It crystallizes in then goes into the ortho position. It never goes directly into the meta position.

The constitution of the oxyazo compounds has attracted much attention, some chemists holding that they are true azophenols of the type R N, R, OH, while others look upon them as having a quinonoid structure, i.e. as being quinone hydrazones, type R-NH-N: R1: O. The first to attack the purely chemical side were Th. Zincke (Ber., 1883,16, p. 2929; 1884, 17, p. 3026; 1887, 20, p. 3171) and R. Meldola (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, pp. 114, 603). Th. Zincke found that the products obtained by coupling a diazonium salt with a-naphthol, and by condensing phenylhydrazine with a-naphthoquinone, were identical; whilst Meldola acetylated the azophenols, and split the acetyl products by reduction in acid solution, but obtained no satisfactory results. K. Auwers (Zeit. f. phys. Chem., 1896, 21, p. 355; Ber., 1900, 33, p. 1302)examined the question from the physico-chemical standpoint by determining the freezing-point depressions, the result being that the para-oxyazo compounds give abnormal depressions and the ortho-oxyazo compounds give normal depressions; Auwers then concluded that the para compounds are phenolic and the ortho compounds are quinone hydrazones or act as such. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1899, 32, pp. 590, 3089) considers that the oxyazo compounds are to be classed as pseudoacids, possessing in the free condition the configuration of quinone hydrazones, their salts, however, being of the normal phenolic type. J. T. Hewitt (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, pp. 99 et seq.) nitrated para-oxyazobenzene with dilute nitric acid and found that it gave a benzene-azo-ortho-nitrophenol, whereas quinones are not attacked by dilute nitric acid. Hewitt has also attacked the problem by brominating the oxyazobenzenes, and has shown that when the hydrobromic acid produced in the reaction is allowed to remain in the system, a brombenzene-azo-phenol is formed, whilst if it be removed (by the addition of sodium acetate) bromination takes place in the phenolic nucleus; consequently the presence of the mineral acid gives the azo compound a pseudo-quinonoid character, which it does not possess if the mineral acid be removed from the sphere of the reaction.

yellow laminae, which melt at 96° C. and explode at slightly higher temperatures. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene. Diazoimino benzene, CH,Ns, is also known. It may be prepared by the action of ammonia on diazobenzene perbromide; by the action of hydroxylamine on a diazonium sulphate (K. Heumann and L. Oeconomides, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 372); and by the action of phenylhydrazine on a diazonium sulphate. It is a yellow oil which boils at 59° C. (12 mm.), and possesses a stupefying odour. It explodes when heated. Hydrochloric acid converts it into chloraniline, nitrogen being eliminated; whilst boiling sulphuric acid converts it into aminophenol.