(Ethyl benzoate may be employed instead of benzoyl glycollic CH, CÓ NHANH,+HONO-HO+CH.CON(NO) NH The resulting benzoylazoimide is easily hydrolysed by boiling An improved method of preparation was found in the use of hippuric acid, which reacts with hydrazine hydrate to form hippuryl hydrazine, CH,CONH-CH-CONH-NH,, and this substance is converted by nitrous acid into diazo-hippuramide, CH,CONH-CH, CO-NH•N, OH, which is hydrolysed by the action of caustic alkalis with the production of salts of hydrazoic acid. To obtain the free acid it is best to dissolve the diazohippuramide in dilute soda, warm the solution to ensure the formation of the sodium salt, and distil the resulting liquid with dilute sulphuric acid. The pure acid may be obtained by fractional distillation as a colourless liquid of very unpleasant smell, boiling at 30° C., and extremely explosive. It is soluble in water, and the solution dissolves many metals (zinc, iron, &c.) with liberation of hydrogen and formation of salts (azoimides, andes or hydrazoates). All the salts are explosive and readily interact with the alkyl iodides. In its properties it shows some analogy to the halogen acids, since it forms difficultly soluble lead, silver and mercurous salts. The metallic salts all crystallize in the anhydrous condition and decompose on heating, leaving a residue of the pure metal. The acid is a "weak "acid, being ionized only to a very slight extent in dilute aqueous solution. E. Noelting and E. Grandmougin (Berichte, 1891, 24. P. 2546) obtained azoimide from dinitraniline, CH(NO;), NH2, by dazotization and conversion of the diazo compound into the perbromide, (NO),CH,N ̧-Br1. This compound is then decomposed by ammonia, dinitrophenylhydrazoate being formed, which on hydrolysis with alcoholic potash gives potassium bydrazoate (azide) and dinitrophenol. The solution is then acted and distilled, when azoimide passes over. Somewhat later, they found that it could be prepared from diazobenzene mide, provided a nitro group were present in the ortho or para poon to the diazo group. The para-nitro compound is dropped slowly into a cold solution of one part of caustic potash in ten parts of absolute alcohol; the solution becomes dark red in colour and is then warmed for two days on the water bath. After the greater portion of the alcohol has distilled off, the solution is acdified with sulphuric acid and the azoimide distilled over. The y eld obtained is only about 40% of that required by theory, on account of secondary reactions taking place. Orthonitro-diazobenzene imide only yields 30%. was obtained by F. Raschig (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 4194) as a highly explosive colourless gas on acidifying a mixture of sodium azide and hypochlorite with acetic or boric acid. AZORES (Açores), or WESTERN ISLANDS, an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to the kingdom of Portugal. Pop. (1900) 256,291; area, 922 sq. m. The Azores extend in an oblique line from N.W. to S.E., between 36° 55′ and 39° 55′ N., and between 25° and 31° 16′ W. They are divided into three widely severed groups, rising from a depth of more than 2 m. The south-eastern group consists of St Michael's' (São Miguel) and St Mary (Santa Maria), with Formigas; the central, of of Long. Corvo Flores 1 Formigas St.Mary (2 English Miles 20 W Wislicenus (Berichte, 1802, 25. p. 2084) has prepared the sodium salt by passing nitrous oxide over sodamide at high temperatures. The acid can also be obtained by the action of nitrous acid on hydrazine sulphate; by the oxidation of bedrazine by hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid (A. W. Browne, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905, 25. p. 251), or by ammonium metavanadate (A. W. Browne and F. F. Shetterly, Abit. J.CS, 1907, ii. p. 863). Ammonium azolimide, Ny-NH,, may be prepared by boiling diamhippuramide with alcoholic ammonia, until no more ammonia escapes, the following reaction taking place: CH.CONHCHCONH N, OH+2NH, NINH+HO CH.CO NH-CH-CO-NH Orte Pr Corvo Rosario Santa Cruz ¿Cube PL Flores English Miles Penta Delga St. Michael's English Miles Formigas St. Mary Villa do Porto Fayal (Faial), Pico, St George (São Jorge), Terceira and Graciosa; the north-western, of Flores and Corvo. The nearest continental land is Cape da Roca on the Portuguese coast, which lies 830 m. E. of St Michael's; while Cape Cantin, the nearest point on the African mainland, is more than 900 m. The liquid is then allowed to stand for twelve hours, and the clear alcoholic solution is decanted from the precipitated hip-distant, and Cape Race in Newfoundland, the nearest American puramide. To the alcoholic solution, four times its volume of ether is added, when the ammonium salt is precipitated. It is them filtered, washed with ether, and air-dried. The salt is readily soluble in water, and is only feebly alkaline. It is extremely explosive. Hydrazine azoimide, NH,, is also known. Chloromtoimide, Cl-N2, the chloride corresponding to azoimide, headland, is more than 1000 m. Thus the Azores are the farthest from any continent of all the island groups in the Atlantic; but they are usually regarded as belonging to Europe, as their climate and flora are European in character. Physical Description.-The aspect of all the islands is very similar in general characteristics, presenting an elevated and undulating outline, with little or no tableland, and rising into | At one time much attention was given to the growing of sugarpeaks, of which the lowest, that of Corvo, is 350 ft., and the cane, but it has now for the most part been abandoned. The highest that of Pico, 7612 ft. above sea level. The lines of sea- culture of indigo, introduced in the 16th century, also belongs to coast are, with few exceptions, high and precipitous, with bases the past. A kind of fern (Dicksonia culcita), called by the natives of accumulated masses of fallen rock, in which open bays, or cabellinho, furnishes a silky material for the stuffing of matscarcely more enclosed inlets, form the harbours of the trading tresses and is exported to Brazil and Portugal. towns. The volcanic character of the whole archipelago is Population. The inhabitants of the islands are mostly of obvious, and has been abundantly confirmed by the numerous Portuguese origin, with a well-marked strain of Moorish and earthquakes and eruptions which have taken place since its Flemish blood. There is a high birth-rate and a low average discovery. Basalt and scoria are the chief erupted materials. of infant mortality. A large proportion of the poorer classes, Hitherto Flores, Corvo and Graciosa have been quite excmpt, especially among the older men and women, are totally illiterate, and Fayal has only suffered from one eruption (1672). The but education tends to spread more rapidly than in Portugal centre of activity has for the most part been St Michael's, while itself, owing to the custom of sending children to the United the neighbouring island of St Mary has altogether escaped. In States, where they are taught in the state schools. Negroes, 1444-1445 there was a great eruption at St Michael's, of which, mulattoes, English, Scottish and Irish immigrants are present however, the accounts that have been preserved exaggerate the in considerable numbers, especially in Fayal and St Michael's. importance. In 1522 the town of Villa Franca, at that time the The total number of resident foreigners in 1900 was 1490. capital of the island, was buried, with all its 6000 inhabitants, Government.-The Azores are subdivided into three adminisduring a violent convulsion. In 1572 an eruption took place in trative districts named after their chief towns, i.e. Ponta Pico; in 1580 St George was the scene of numerous outbursts; Delgada, the capital of St Michael's; Angra, or Angra do and in 1614 a little town in Terceira was destroyed. In 1630, Heroismo, the capital of Terceira; and Horta, the capital of 1652, 1656, 1755, 1852, &c., St Michael's was visited with Fayal. St Michael's and St Mary are included in the district successive eruptions and carthquakes, several of them of great of Ponta Delgada; Terceira, St George and Graciosa, in that violence. On various occasions, as in 1638, 1720, 1811 and 1867, of Angra; Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in that of Horta. subterranean eruptions have taken place, which have sometimes Four members are returned by Ponta Delgada to the parliament been accompanied by the appearance of temporary islands. Of in Lisbon, while each of the other districts returns two members. these the most remarkable was thrown up in June 1811, about Roman Catholicism is the creed of the majority, and Angra is half a league from the western extremity of St Michael's. It an episcopal see. For purposes of military administration the was called Sabrina by the commander of the British man-of-war islands form two commands, with their respective headquarters of that name, who witnessed the phenomenon. at Angra and Ponta Delgada. Besides the frequent and regular Climate.The climate is particularly temperate, but the ex- services of mails which connect the Azores with Portugal and tremes of sensible heat and cold are increased by the humidity. Other countries, there is a cable from Lisbon to Villa Franca do The range of the thermometer is from 45° Fahr., the lowest known Campo, in St Michael's, and thence to Pico, Fayal, St George extreme, or 48°, the ordinary lowest extreme of January, to 82°, and Graciosa. Fayal is connected with Walerville, in Ireland, the ordinary, or 86°, the highest known extreme of July, near by a cable laid in 1901. At Angra and Ponta Delgada there are the level of the sea. Between these two points (both taken in meteorological stations. The principal seaports are Angra the shade) there is from month to month a pretty regular grada (pop. 1900, 10,788), Ponta Delgada (17,620), and Horta (6574). tion of increase or decrease, amounting to somewhat less than Trade. The trade of the Azores, long a Portuguese monopoly, four degrees. In winter the prevailing winds are from the north is now to a great extent shared by the United Kingdom and west, west and south; in summer the most frequent are the Germany, and is chiefly carried in British vessels. Textiles are north, north-east and east. The weather is often extremely imported from Portugal; coal from Great Britain; sugar from stormy, and the winds from the west and south-west render the Germany, Madeira and the United States; stationery, hardware, navigation of the coasts very dangerous. chemicals, paints, oils, &c., from the United Kingdom and Fauna.—The mammalia of the Azores are limited to the rabbit, Germany. The exports consist chiefly of fruit, wine, natural weasel, ferret, rat (brown and black), mouse and bat, in addition mineral waters and provisions. The trade in pineapples is to domestic animals. The game includes the woodcock, red especially important. No fewer than 940,000 pineapples were partridge (introduced in the 16th century), quail and snipe. exported in 1902 and 1903, going in almost equal quantities to Owing to the damage inflicted on the crops by the multitude of London and Hamburg. The fruit is raised under glass. Pottery, blackbirds, bullfinches, chaffinches and green canaries, a reward cotton fabrics, spirits, straw hats and tea are produced in the was formerly paid for the destruction of birds in St Michael's, district of Ponta Delgada; linen and woollen goods, cheese, and it is said that over 400,000 were destroyed in several succes- butter, soap, bricks and tiles, in that of Angra; baskets, mats, sive years between 1875 and 1885. There are valuable fisheries and various ornamental articles made from straw, osier, and the of tunny, mullet and bonito. The porpoise, dolphin and whale pith of dried fig-wood, in that of Horta. are also common. Whale-fishing is a profitable industry, with The largest and most populous of the Azores is St Michael's, its headquarters at Fayal, whence the sperm-oil is exported. which has an area of 297 sq. m., and in 1900 had 121,340 inhabitEels are found in the rivers. The only indigenous reptile is the ants. Graciosa (pop. 8385; area, 17 sq. m.) and St George lizard. Fresh-water molluscs are unknown, and near the coast (16,177; 40 sq. m.) form part of the central group. Graciosa the marine fauna is not rich; but terrestrial molluscs abound, is noteworthy for the beauty of its scenery. Its chief towns are several species being peculiar to the Azores. Santa Cruz de Graciosa (2185) and Guadalupe (2717). The chief Flora. -The general character of the flora is decidedly towns of St George are Ribeira Seca (2817) and Velas (2009). European, no fewer than 400 out of the 478 species generally History. It does not appear that the ancient Greeks and considered as indigenous belonging likewise to that continent, Romans had any knowledge of the Azores, but from the number while only four are found in America, and forty are peculiar to of Carthaginian coins discovered in Corvo it has been supposed the archipelago. Vegetation in most of the islands is remarkably that the islands must have been visited by that adventurous rich, especially in grasses, mosses, and ferns, heath, juniper, and people. The Arabian geographers, Edrisi in the 12th century, a variety of shrubs. Of tall-growing trees there was, till the and Ibn-al-Wardi in the 14th, describe, after the Canaries, nine 19th century, an almost total lack; but the Bordeaux pine, other islands in the Western Ocean, which are in all probability European poplar, African palm-tree, Australian eucalyptus, the Azores. This identification is supported by various conchestnut, tulip-tree, elm, oak, and many others, were then siderations. The number of islands is the same; the climate successfully introduced. The orange, apricot, banana, lemon, under which they are placed by the Arabians makes them north citron, Japanese medlar, and pomegranate are the common of the Canaries; and special mention is made of the hawks or fruits, and various other varieties are more or less cultivated. I buzzards, which were sufficiently numerous at a later period to give rise to the present name (Port. Agor, a hawk). The Arabian | somewhat intermittent independence against the power of the writers represent them as having been populous, and as having Israelites, by whom it was nominally assigned to the territory of contained cities of some magnitude; but they state that the Judah. In 711 B.C. it was captured by the Assyrians (Is. xx. 1), inhabitants had been greatly reduced by intestine warfare. The but soon regained its power, and was strong enough in the Azores are first found distinctly marked in a map of 1351, the next century to resist the assaults of Psammetichus, king of southern group being named the Goat Islands (Cabreras); the Egypt, for twenty-nine years (Herod. ii. 157). Restored by the middle group, the Wind or Dove Islands (De Ventura sive de Roman Gabinius from the ruins to which it had been reduced Columbis); and the western, the Brazil Island (De Brazi)—the by the Jewish wars (1 Macc. v. 68, x. 77, xvi. 10), it was presented word Brazil at that time being employed for any red dye-stuff. by Augustus to Salome, the sister of Herod. The only New In a Catalan map of the year 1375 Corvo is found as Corvi Marini, Testament reference is in Acts viii. 40. Ashdod became the and Flores as Li Conigi; while St George is already designated seat of a bishop carly in the Christian era, but seems never to San Zorze. It has been conjectured that the discoverers were have attained any importance as a town. The Mount Azotus Genoese, but of this there is not sufficient evidence. It is plain, of 1 Macc. ix. 15, where Judas Maccabeus fell, is possibly the however, that the so-called Flemish discovery by van der Berg rising ground on which the village stands. A fine Saracenic is only worthy of the name in a very secondary sense. According khan is the principal relic of antiquity at 'Esdud. to the usual account, he was driven on the islands in 1432, and the news excited considerable interest at the court of Lisbon. The navigator, Gonzalo Velho Cabral-not to be confounded with his greater namesake, Pedro Alvarez Cabral-was sent to prosecute the discovery. Another version relates that Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal had in his possession a map in which the islands were laid down, and that he sent out Cabral through confidence in its accuracy. The map had been presented to him by his brother, Dom Pedro, who had travelled as far as Babylon. Be this as it may, Cabral reached the island, which he named Santa Maria, in 1432, and in 1444 took possession of St Michael's. The other islands were all discovered by 1457. Colonization had meanwhile been going on prosperously; and in 1466 Fayal was presented by Alphonso V. to his aunt, Isabella, the duchess of Burgundy. An influx of Flemish settlers followed, and the islands became known for a time as the Flemish Islands. From 1580 to 1640 they were subject, like the rest of the Portuguese kingdom, to Spain. At that time the Azores were the grand rendezvous for the fleets on their voyage home from the Indies; and hence they became a theatre of that maritime warfare which was carried on by the English under Queen Elizabeth against the Peninsular powers. One such expedition, which took place in 1591, led to the famous sea-fight off Flores, between the English ship "Revenge," commanded by Sir Richard Grenville, and a Spanish fleet of fifty-three vessels. Under the active administration of the marquis de Pombal (1699-1782), considerable efforts were made for the improvement of the Azores, but the stupid and bigoted government which followed rather tended to destroy these benefits. Towards the beginning of the 19th century, the possession of the islands, was contested by the claimants for the crown of Portugal. The adherents of the constitution, who supported against Miguel the rights of Maria (II) da Gloria, obtained possession of Terceira in 1829, where they succeeded in maintaining themselves, and after various struggles, Queen Maria's authority was established over all the islands. She resided at Angra from 1830 to 1833. AZOV, or Asov (in Turkish, Asak), a town of Russia, in the government of the Don Cossacks, on the left bank of the southern arm of the Don, about 20 m. from its mouth. The ancient Tanais lay some 10 m. to the north. In the 13th century the Genoese had a factory here which they called Tana. Azov was long a place of great military and commercial importance. | Peter the Great obtained possession of it after a protracted siege in 1696, but in 1711 restored it to the Turks; in 1739 it was finally united to the Russian empire. Since then it has greatly declined, owing to the silting up of its harbour and the competition of Taganrog. Its population, principally engaged in the fisheries, numbered 25,124 in 1900. For a general account of the islands, see The Azores, by W. F. Walker (London, 1886), and Madeira and the Canary Islands, with the Azores, by A. S. Brown (London, 1901). On the fauna and flora of the islands, the following books by H. Drouet are useful:Eliments de la faune açoréenne (Paris, 1861); Mollusques marins des les Açores (1858), Lettres acoréennes (1862), and Catalogue de la flore des les Açores, précédé de l'itinéraire d'une voyage dans cet archipel (1866). The progress of Azorian commerce is best shown in the British and American consular reports. For history, see La Conquista de las Azores en 1583, by C. Fernandez Duro (Madrid, 1886. and Histoire de la découverte des iles Azores et de l'origine de leur dénomination d'iles flamandes, by J. Mees (Ghent, 1901). AZOTH, the name given by the alchemists to mercury, and by Paracelsus to his universal remedy. AZOTUS, the name given by Greek and Roman writers to Ashdod, an ancient city of Palestine, now represented by a few remains in the little village of Esdud, in the governmental district of Acre. It was situated about 3 m. inland from the Mediterranean, on the famous military route between Syria and Egypt, about equidistant (18 m.) from Joppa and Gaza. As AZOV, SEA OF, an inland sea of southern Europe, communi. cating with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kerch, the ancient Bosporus Cimmerius. To the Romans it was known as the Palus Macolis, from the name of the neighbouring people, who called it in their native language Temarenda, or Mother of Waters. It was long supposed to possess direct communication with the Northern Ocean. In prehistoric times a connexion with the Caspian Sea existed; but since the earliest historical times no great change has taken place in regard to the character or relations of the Sea of Azov. It lies between 45° 20′ and 47° 18′ N. lat., and between 35° and 39° E. long., its length from southwest to north-east being 230 m., and its greatest breadth 110. The area runs to 14.515 sq. m. It generally freezes from November to the middle of April. The Don is its largest and, indeed, its only very important affluent. Near the mouth of that river the depth of the sea varies from 3 to 10 ft., and the greatest depth does not exceed 45 ft. Of recent years, too, the level has been constantly dropping, for the surface lies 4 ft. higher than the surface of the Black Sea. Fierce and continuous winds from the east prevail during July and August, and in the latter part of the year those from the north-east and south-east are not unusual; a great variety of currents is thus produced. The water is for the most part comparatively fresh, but differs considerably in this respect according to locality and current. Fish are so abundant that the Turks describe it as Baluk-deniz, or Fish Sea. To the west, separated from the main basin by the long narrow sand-spit of Arabat, lie the remarkable lagoons and marshes known as the Sivash, or Putrid Sea; here the water is intensely salt. The Sea of Azov is of great importance to Russian commerce; along its shores stand the cities of Taganrog, Berdyansk, Mariupol and Yenikale. AZOXIMES (furo [a.b.] diazoles), a class of organic compounds which contain the ring system NCHO. They may be HCN prepared by converting nitriles into amidoximes by the action of hydroxylamine, the amidoximes so formed being then acylated by acid chlorides or anhydrides. From these acyl derivatives the elements of water are removed, either by simple heating or by boiling their aqueous solution; this elimination is accompanied by the formation of the azoxime ring. Thus CH.CNCH, CNOH NH2OH NH one of the five chief cities of the Philistines and the seat of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v.; cf. 1 Macc. x. 83), it maintained, down even to the days of the Maccabees, a vigorous though [C.H.C NH, boil with propionic anhydride Azoximes can also be produced from a-benzil dioxime by the I became chief keeper of the archives and royal chronicler in "Beckmann" change. Most of the azoximes are very volatile substances, sublime readily, and are easily soluble in water, alcohol and benzene. For detailed descriptions, see F. Tiemann. (Ber., 1885, 18. p. 1059), O. Schulz (Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 1084, 2459), and G. Müller (Ber.,1886, 19, p. 1492); also Annual Reports of the Chemical Society). AZTECS (from the Nahuatl word astlan, "place of the Heron," or "Heron " people), the native name of one of the tribes that occupied the tableland of Mexico on the arrival of the Spaniards in America. It has been very frequently employed as equivalent to the collective national title of Nahuatlecas or Mexicans. The Aztecs came, according to native tradition, from a country to which they gave the name of Aztlan, usually supposed to lie towards the north-west, but the satisfactory localization of it is one of the greatest difficulties in Mexican history. The date of the exodus from Aztlan is equally undetermined, being fixed by various authorities in the 11th and by others in the 12th century. One Mexican manuscript gives a date equivalent to A.D. 1164. They gradually increased their influence among other tribes, until, by union with the Toltecs, who occupied the tableland before them, they extended their empire to an area of from 18,000 to 20,000 square leagues. The researches of Humboldt gave the first clear insight into the early periods of their history. See MEXICO; NAHUATLAN STOCK. AZUAGA, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the Belmez-Fuente del Arco railway. Pop. (1900) 14,192. Azuaga is the central market for the live-stock of the broad upland pastures watered by the Matachel, a left-hand tributary of the Guadiana, and by the Bembézar, a right-hand tributary of the Guadalquivir. Coarse woollen goods and pottery are manufactured in the town. AZUAY (sometimes written ASSUAY), a province of Ecuador, bounded N. by the province of Cañar, E. by Oriente, S. by Loja, and W. by El Oro. It was formerly called Cuenca, and formed part of the department of Azuay, which also included the province of Loja. Azuay is an elevated mountainous district with a great variety of climates and products; among the latter are silver, quicksilver, wheat, Indian corn, barley, cattle, wool, cinchona and straw hats. The capital is Cuenca. AZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO (1749-1827), Italian jurist, was born at Sassar, in Sardinia, in 1749. He studied law at Sassari and Turin, and in 1782 was made judge of the consulate at Nice. In 1786-1788 he published his Dizionario Universale Ragionato della Giurisprudenza Mercantile. In 1795 appeared his systematic work on the maritime law of Europe, Sistema Universale dei Principii del Diritto Maritimo dell' Europa, which he afterwards recast and translated into French. In 1806 he was appointed one of the French commission engaged in drawing up a general code of commercial law, and in the following year he proceeded to Genoa as president of the court of appeal. After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Azuni lived for a time in retirement at Genoa, till he was invited to Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel I., and appointed judge of the consulate at Cagliari, and director of the university library. He died at Cagliari in 1827. Azuni also wrote numerous pamphlets and minor works, chiefly on maritime law, an important treatise on the origin and progress of maritime law (Paris, 1810), and an historical, geographical and political account of Sardinia (1799, enlarged 1802). AZURARA, GOMES EANNES DE (?-1474), the second notable Portuguese chronicler in order of date. He adopted the 'career of letters in middle life. He probably entered the royal library as assistant to Fernão Lopes (q.v.) during the reign of King Duarte (1433-1438), and he had sole charge of it in 1452. His Chronicle of the Siege and Capture of Ceuta, a supplement to the Chronicle of King John I., by Lopes, dates from 1450, and three years later he completed the first draft of the Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, our authority for the early Portuguese voyages of discovery down the African coast and in the ocean, more especially for those undertaken under the auspices of Prince Henry the Navigator. It contains some account of the life work of that prince, and has a biographical as well as a geographical interest. On the 6th of June 1454 Azurara' | succession to Fernão Lopes. In 1456 King Alphonso V. commissioned him to write the history of Ceuta, "the land-gate of the East," under the governorship of D. Pedro de Menezes, from its capture in 1415 until 1437, and he had it ready in 1463. A year afterwards the king charged him with a history of the deeds of D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, and, proceeding to Africa, he spent a twelvemonth in the town collecting materials and studying the scenes of the events he was to describe, and in 1468 he completed the chronicle. Alphonso corresponded with Azurara on terms of affectionate intimacy, and no less than three commendas of the order of Christ rewarded his literary services. He has little of the picturesque ingenuousness of Lopes, and loved to display his erudition by quotations and philosophical reflections, showing that he wrote under the influence of the first Renaissance. Nearly all the leading classical, early Christian and medieval writers figure in his pages, and he was acquainted with the notable chronicles and romances of Europe and had studied the best Italian and Spanish authors. In addition, he had mastered the geographical system of the ancients and their astrology. As an historian he is laborious, accurate and conscientious, though his position did not allow him to tell the whole truth about his hero, Prince Henry. His works include: (1) Chronica del Rei D. Joam I. Terceira parte em que se contem a tomada de Ceuta (Lisbon, 1644); (2) Chronica do Descobrimento e Conquista de Guiné (Paris, 1841; Eng. version in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899); (3) Chronica do Conde D. Pedro (de Menezes), printed in the Ineditos D. Duarte de Menezes, printed in the Ineditos, vol. iii. (Lisbon, 1793). de Historia Portuguesa, vol. ii. (Lisbon, 1792); (4) Chronica do Conde The preface to the English version of the Chronicle of Guinea contains a full account of the life and writings of Azurara and cites all the authorities. (E. PR.) AZURE (derived, through the Romance languages, from the Arabic al-lazward, for the precious stone lapis lazuli, the initial having dropped), the lapis lazuli; and so its colour, blue. AZURITE, or CHESSYLITE, a mineral which is a basic copper carbonate, 2CuCO3-Cu(OH)2. In its vivid blue colour it contrasts strikingly with the emerald-green malachite, also a basic copper carbonate, but containing rather more water and less carbon dioxide. It was known to Pliny under the name caeruleum, and the modern name azurite (given by F. S. Beudant in 1824) also has reference to the azure-blue colour; the name chessylite, also in common use, is of later date (1852), and is from the locality, Chessy near Lyons, which has supplied the best crystallized specimens of the mineral. Crystals of azurite belong to the monoclinic system; they have a vitreous lustre and are translucent. The streak is blue, but lighter than the colour of the mineral in mass. Hardness 3-4; sp. gr. 3·8. Azurite occurs with malachite in the upper portions of deposits of copper ore, and owes its origin to the alteration of the sulphide or of native copper by water containing carbon dioxide and oxygen. It is thus a common mineral in all copper mines, and sometimes occurs in large masses, as in Arizona and in South Australia, where it has been worked as an ore of copper, of which element it contains 55%. Being less hydrated than malachite it is itself liable to alteration into this mineral, and pseudomorphs of malachite after azurite are not uncommon. Occasionally the massive material is cut and polished for decorative purposes, though the application in this direction is far less extensive than that of malachite. (L. J. S.) AZYMITES (Gr. ȧ-, without; bun, leaven), a name given by the Orthodox Eastern to the Western or Latin Church, because of the latter's use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, a practice which arose in the 9th century and is also observed by Armenians and Maronites following the Jewish passover custom. The Orthodox Church strenuously maintains its point, arguing that the very name bread, the holiness of the mystery, and the example of Jesus and the early church alike, testify against the use of unleavened bread in this connexion. B This letter corresponds to the second symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, and appears in the same position in all the European alphabets, except those derived, like the Russian, from medieval Greek, in which the pronunA new form had ciation of this symbol had changed from b to v. therefore to be invented for the genuine b in Slavonic, to which there was, at the period when the alphabet was adopted, no corresponding sound in Greek. The new symbol, which occupies the second position, was made by removing the upper loop of B, thus producing a symbol somewhat resembling an ordinary lowercase b. The old B retained the numerical value of the Greek B as 2, and no numerical value was given to the new symbol. In the Phoenician alphabet the earliest forms are 9 or more rounded 9. The rounded form appears also in the earliest Aramaic (see ALPHABET). Like some other alphabetic symbols it was not borrowed by Greek in its original form. In the very early rock inscriptions of Thera (700-600 B.C.), written from right to left, it appears in a form resembling the ordinary Greck A; this form apparently arose from writing the Semitic symbol upside down. Its form in inscriptions of Melos, Selinus, Syracuse and elsewhere in the 6th and 5th centuries suggests the influence of Aramaic forms in which the head of the letter is opened, The Corinthian П, and Z (also at Corcyra) and the of Byzantine coins are other adaptations of the same symbol. The form C which it takes in the alphabets of Naxos, Delos and other Ionic islands at the same period is difficult to explain. Otherwise its only variation is between pointed and rounded The sound which the symbol represents is loops (B and B). the voiced stop made by closing the lips and vibrating the vocal chords (see PHONETICS). It differs from p by the presence of England. There he became acquainted with the works of Jakob Boehme, and with the ideas of Hume, Hartley and Godwin, which were extremely distasteful to him. The mystical speculations of Meister Eckhart, Saint Martin, and above all those of Boehme, were more in harmony with his mode of thought. In 1796 he returned from England, and in Hamburg became acquainted with F. H. Jacobi, with whom he was for years on terms of friendship. He now learned something of Schelling, and the works he published during this period were manifestly influenced by that philosopher. Yet Baader is no disciple of Schelling, and probably gave out more than he received. Their friendship continued till about the year 1822, when Baader's denunciation of modern philosophy in his letter to the emperor Alexander I. of Russia entirely alienated Schelling. All this time Baader continued to apply himself to his profession of engineer. He gained a prize of 12,000 gulden (about £1000) for his new method of employing Glauber's salts instead of potash in the making of glass. From 1817 to 1820 he held the post of superintendent of mines, and was raised to the rank of nobility for his services. He retired in 1820, and soon after published one of the best of his works, Fermenta Cognitionis, 6 parts, 1822-1825, in which he combats modern philosophy and recommends the study of Boehme. In 1826, when the new university was opened at Munich, he was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative theology. Some of the lectures delivered there he published under the title, Spekulative Dogmatik, 4 parts, 1827-1836. In 1838 he opposed the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church, to which he belonged, and in consequence was, during the last three years of his life, interdicted from lecturing on the philosophy of religion. He died on the 23rd of May 1841. It is difficult to summarize Baader's philosophy, for he himself generally gave expression to his deepest thoughts in obscure aphorisms, or mystical symbols and analogies (see Ed. Zeller's Ges. d. deut. Phil. 732, 736). Further, he has no systematic works; his doctrines exist for the most part in short detached essays, in comments on the writings of Bochme and Saint Martin, or in his extensive correspondence and journals. At the same time there are salient points which mark the outline of his thought. Baader starts from the position that human reason by itself can never reach the end it aims at, and maintains that we cannot throw aside the presuppositions of faith, church and tradition. His point of view may be described as Scholasticism; for, like the scholastic doctors, he believes that theology and philosophy are not opposed sciences, but that reason has to make clear the truths given by authority and revelation. But in his attempt to draw still closer the realms of faith and knowledge he approaches more nearly to the mysticism of Eckhart, Paracelsus and Bochme. Our existence depends on the fact that we are cognized by God (cogitor ergo cogito et sum). All self-consciousness is at the same time God-consciousness; our know vibration of the vocal chords and from m because the nasal passage as well as the lips is closed. When an audible emission of breath attends its production the aspirate bh is formed. This sound was frequent in the pro-ethnic period of the Indo-European languages and survived into the Indo-Aryan languages. According to the system of phonetic changes generally known as 'Grimm's law," an original b appears in English as p, an original bh as b. An original medial preceding the chief accent of the word also appears as b in English and the other members of the same group. It is not certain that any English word is descended from an original word beginning with b, though it has been suggested that peg is of the same origin as the Latin baculum and the Greek Bakтpov. When the lips are not tightly closed the sound produced is not a stop, but a spirant like the English . In Late Latin there was a tendency to this spirant pronunciation which appears as early as the beginning of the 2nd century A.D.; by the 3rd century b and consonantal u are in-ledge is never mere scientia, it is invariably con-scientia a knowing extricably confused. When this consonantal u (English was seen in words borrowed very early from Latin like wall and wine) passed into the sound of English (labio-dental) is not certain, but Germanic words borrowed into Latin in the 5th century A.D. have in their Latin representation gu- for Germanic w-, guisa corresponding to English wise and reborrowed indirectly as guise. The earliest form of the name of the symbol which we can reach is the Hebrew beth, to which the Phoenician must have been closely akin, as is shown by the Greek Bira, which is (P. Gr.) borrowed from it with a vowel affixed. BAADER, FRANZ XAVER VON (1765-1841), German philosopher and theologian, born on the 27th of March 1765 at Munich, was the third son of F. P. Baader, court physician to the elector of Bavaria. His brothers were both distinguished-the elder, Clemens, as an author; the second, Joseph (1763-1835), as an engineer. Franz studied medicine at Ingolstadt and Vienna, and for a short time assisted his father in his practice. This life he soon found uncongenial, and decided on becoming a mining engineer. He studied under Abraham Gottlob Werner at Freiberg, travelled through several of the mining districts in morth Germany, and for four years, 1792-1796, resided in with, consciousness of, or participation in God. Baader's philosophy |