outline of that border, showed the great inequalities on her surface, since the mountain-tops would be illuminated by the sun, while the sides and base would lie in obscurity, in consequence of the convexity of the surface. In pursuing these observations, he found that the moon turns towards the earth the same face constantly, so that nearly a hemisphere of her surface can never be visible to us. From this remarkable fact he does not appear to have drawn the inevitable consequence, that the time of her rotation round her own axis, and the time of a revolution round the earth, must be exactly equal. Lagrange afterwards suggested that this effect was primitively caused by the determination of the lunar figure, in which the heavier part being originally accumulated towards the attracting primary, the moon, in its revolution, would always have a tendency to fall towards the heavier side so determined. Galilei subsequently observed the librations of the moon, by which small portions of her more distant hemisphere are alternately brought in view; but he was not in a situation to give a satisfactory explanation of the cause, from the imperfection of theoretical astronomy. The idea which was suggested from the appearance of oceans and continents, mountains and valleys, on the moon, that she might be habitable, overwhelmed the schoolmen with horror, and struck the religious with alarm.

On examining the nebula, and particularly the Milky Way, with his glass, he perceived that they were composed of myriads of stars, or, in the language of Milton, "powdered with stars." It may be remarked in passing, that Milton visited Galilei, and entertained the highest opinion of his philosophy, to which he makes several beautiful allusions in his 'Paradise Lost.'

The planet Jupiter furnished matter for still greater wonder. Galilei perceived three very small stars eastward of the planet, and close to its disc; two of them, on a subsequent observation, had distinctly changed position to the westward: he soon perceived that they were satellites; and shortly afterwards he discovered the fourth. The strength which this discovery gave to the Copernican system, from the analogy with our moon, however gratifying to Galilei in a speculative point of view, did not prevent his ever-active mind from perceiving its great practical importance in the question of determining longitudes at sea; but it was reserved for a future age to bring this and other methods to a degree of perfection then impracticable. The theory of astronomy and the construction of chronometers were, at that time, in a most imperfect state; and though Galilei offered his services to Spain, then a great maritime power, it is doubtful whether he would not have had cause for regret if the wished-for arrangement had taken place. The manner in which he was assailed after this discovery must have caused him amusement rather than chagrin: some would not look through his glass to be convinced; one Horky asserted that he had used the telescope, and that he saw nothing of the kind; one thought it odd that nature should give satellites to Jupiter for no purpose but to immortalise the Medici family (for Galilei had denominated them Medicean stars, in honour of his patron). Some time after, his opponents found out five satellites for Jupiter instead of four; while one had the impudence to say that he actually saw nine satellites. (1610.)

On examining Saturn with the telescope he perceived his ring, or rather rings (as Sir W. Herschel has since shown), but viewing it in perspective, he took the lateral portions for two small stars, which induced him to announce in transposed letters the following

sentence

"Altissimum Planetam tergeminum observavi."

(The most distant planet I have observed to be threefold.)

Huyghens was the first who corrected this error; though it is remarkable that the occasional disappearance of the supposed lateral planets, which arose from the relative change of the position of the ring, which so much astonished Galilei, had not suggested to him the correct nature of the phenomenon: we must however remember the great imperfections of the first constructed telescopes.

His next discovery he also concealed in the same enigmatical manner: the transposed letters signify, in their proper order

"Cynthia figuras æmulatur mater amorum;"
(Venus rivals the moon's phases;)

alluding to the crescent form of this planet when in or near conjunction. His discovery of spots on the sun's disc, which were evidently attached to that luminary, was a severe blow to the imaginary perfection of the schoolmen.

The Jesuits had always entertained a cordial hatred for Galilei, as he had joined the party by whom they had been expelled from Padua; the progress of his discoveries was therefore reported to the Inquisition at Rome as dangerous to religion, and he was openly denounced from the pulpit by Caccini, a friar. In his own justification he wrote letters, one to his pupil Castelli, and another to the Archduchess Christina, in which he repudiates any attack upon religion, and states that the object of the Scriptures was to teach men the way of salvation, and not to instruct them in astronomy, for the acquiring of which they were endowed with sufficient natural faculties. Nevertheless the Inquisition was implacable, and ordered Caccini to draw up depositions against Galilei; but his appearance in person at Rome in 1615, and his able defence of his conduct, for a moment silenced his persecutors.

In March 1616 the pope (Paul V.) granted Galilei an audience, and

assured him of his personal safety, but positively required him not to teach the Copernican doctrine of the motion of the earth: Galilei complied, and left Rome in disgust. He had soon occasion to turn his attention again to astronomy, for in 1618 there appeared no less than three comets, on which occurrence Galilei advised his friends not to conceive too hastily that comets are like planets, moving through the immensity of space, but that they may be atmospheric; his reasons for this, though ingenious, are fallacious, as are those which he afterwards gave for the causes which produce tides, which he attributes to the unequal velocities of different parts of the sea by reason of the combination of the rotatory and progressive motions of the earth, which at some points conspire together and at others are opposed. Wallis afterwards seems to have adopted the same opinion, which could never have been entertained had either of them reflected on the complete independence of the rotatory and progressive motions of bodies. The motion of the whole solar system too would, on their supposition, have affected the tides; but dynamics had as yet no existence, and Galilei often frankly confesses that he is more a philosopher than a mathematician. He afterwards went to Rome, and was received with great kindness by the next pope (Urban VIII.): his enemies were silenced for awhile, and he was sent home to Tuscany loaded with favours and presents; and though his patron, Cosmo II. de' Medici, was dead, his successor, Ferdinand II., showed him strong marks of esteem and attachment. In 1630 he finished, and in 1632 completed, his celebrated work, 'Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems,' which he dedicated to Ferdinand II. By giving the work this form, his object seems to have been to evade his promise not to teach the Copernican doctrines. Three fictitious persons conduct the dialogue: Salviati, a Copernican; Sagredo, a banterer on the same side; and Simplicio, a Ptolemaist, who gets much the worst both by jokes and arguments. In his dialogue Galilei was thought to have aimed at the prohibition in some of his sarcastic remarks; and the pope, who had been personally friendly with Galilei, fancied, apparently with some reason, that he was the person held up to ridicule in the last character, as some arguments which he had used had been put into Simplicio's mouth; he was therefore mortally offended, and the Inquisition resolved not to allow the attempted evasion of Galilei's solemn promise. Galilei was accordingly summoned to Rome, though he was seventy years of age and overwhelmed with infirmities; he had however all the protection and comforts which the grand duke could confer on him, being kept at the Tuscan ambassador's house; and this spirited man (Nicolini) even wished to maintain him at his own expense when he perceived a penurious disposition in Ferdinand's minister.

After some months' residence in Rome he was again summoned before the Inquisition, and on the 20th of June appeared before the assembled inquisitors in the convent of Minerva. The whole of his sentence is too long to be transcribed here, but a portion of it is too curious to be omitted:

By the desire of his Holiness, and of the most eminent Lords Cardinals of this supreme and universal Inquisition, the two propositions, of the stability of the sun and motion of the earth, were qualified by the Theological Qualifiers as follows:

"1st. The proposition that the sun is the centre of the world and immoveable from its place, is absurd, philosophically false, and formally heretical; because it is expressly contrary to Holy Scripture.

2ndly. The proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world, nor immoveable, but that it moves, and also with a diurnal motion, is absurd, philosophically false, and theologically considered at least erroneous in faith."

After a long and declamatory exposé, from one passage in which it has been suspected that Galilei was put to the torture, it concludes

thus::

prohibited by edict; we condemn you to the prison of this office during pleasure; we order you, for the next three weeks, to recite once a week the seven penitential psalms, &c. &c."

"We decree that the book of the Dialogues' of Galileo Galilei be

To obtain so mild a sentence Galilei was obliged to abjure, on the Gospels, his belief in the Copernican doctrine. We quote a part of his abjuration:

"With a sincere heart and unfeigned faith I abjure, curse, and detest the said errors and heresies (viz. that the earth moves, &c.); I swear that I will never in future say or assert anything, verbally or in writing, which may give rise to a similar suspicion against me. . . . "I Galileo Galilei have abjured as above with my own hand." Rising from his knees after this solemnity, he whispered to a friend, "E pur se muove" ("It moves, for all that").

This sentence and abjuration having been generally promulgated, the disciples of Galilei found it necessary to act with prudence; but their esteem for their master was not diminished by this compulsory abjuration.

Afflictions followed quickly the old age of Galilei. In April 1634 he lost a beloved daughter, who was his only stay. He was allowed to return to Arcetri, where she breathed her last, but he was still kept in strict confinement. After two years spent in this unhappy condition, his confinement became more rigorous through some new suspicions entertained by the pope; so that, after having been allowed

to remove to Florence for the benefit of his declining health, he was ordered to return to Arcetri. In 1636 he became totally blind, about which time he finished his 'Dialogues on Motion,' which were remarkable enough for the time or for any other man, though not perhaps commensurate with the high ideas associated with the name of Galilei; and though he believed this work could not annoy the holy office, yet the terror was so great and universal that he could not get it published until some years after, when it was undertaken at Amsterdam. Amongst the most celebrated pupils of Galilei are Viviani and Torricelli, the former of whom in particular bore a strong attachment for his master. While Torricelli was arranging a continuation for the 'Dialogues on Motion,' Galilei was suddenly taken ill with a palpitation of the heart, and, having lingered two months, he died on the 8th of January 1642.

Galilei appears to have been of a sprightly temperament, easily crossed and easily reconciled; his kindness to his relatives, which distinguished him from his childhood to old age, and which went frequently to such an extent as to embarrass himself, forms a noble trait in his domestic character; he was somewhat attached to the bottle, and was considered a good judge of wine; he contrived to have his son Vincentio legitimised, but afterwards had the misfortune to find his hopes in this lad rather disappointed. Galilei was also acknowledged to have an excellent taste for music, painting, and poetry, and the style of his 'Dialogues' is still much praised by his countrymen. Galilei's works have been collected in 13 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1811; there have been also several other collections of the same, and they have been published in separate tracts.

Viviani, his disciple, wrote his life, and left a legacy to raise a monument to his memory. Newton was born one year after Galilei's death.

One of the best-written biographies of Galilei that has yet appeared is by Mr. Drinkwater, in the ‘Library of Useful Knowledge.' A learned and elaborate, though not very temperate, defence of the proceedings of the Roman Catholic Church, was published in the 'Dublin Review' for July 1838. GALL, DR. FRANZ JOSEPH, the founder of the system of phrenology, was born at Tiefenbrunn, in Suabia, on the 9th of March 1757. If the story told of him be true, he, at a very early age, evinced habits of accurate observation; for it is said that, when a boy at school, he amused himself with remarking the differences of character and talent among his brothers and sisters, his playmates and schoolfellows; and he soon arrived at the conclusion that these characters and talents seldom changed by education. He observed, it is said, that the boys who were his most formidable competitors were all distinguishable by a peculiar expression of countenance, the result of unusual protrusion of the eyeball, which seemed to him a certain sign of talent. On his removal to another school he still found himself invariably beaten by his "bull-eyed" companions, as he called them, and making the same observations as before, he found all his playmates still distinguished for some peculiar talent or temper. He next went to the university of Vienna to pursue his studies for the medical profession, and at once began to search for prominent eyes among his fellow-students; all that he met with were, as he found, well known for their attainments in classics, or languages generally, or for powers of recitation; in short, for talent in language; and hence the prominent eye, which he had first thought indicated talent generally, he became convinced marked a facility for acquiring a knowledge in words, which was the principal study in the schools of his boyhood. This coincidence of a peculiar talent with an external physiognomic sign, led him to suspect that there might be found some other mark for each talent, and remembering that at school there were a number of boys who had a singular facility in finding birds' nests, and recollecting where they had been placed, while others, and especially himself, would forget the spot in a day or two, he began to search among his fellowstudents for all who indicated a similar knowledge and memory of places, that he might see in what feature that would be indicated, and he soon thought he found them all marked by a peculiar form of the eye-brow. He now felt convinced that by accurate observation of the shape of the head in different persons, he should find a mark for every kind of talent, and he lost no opportunity of examining the forms of the head in poets, painters, mechanics, musicians, and all distinguished in art or science. He found, as he fancied, external signs in each class that separated them from the rest, and he thought he could now clearly discern the character of each by their cranial formation before he inquired into their pursuits or reputation. He had observed that persons remarkable for determination of character had one part of their heads unusually large, and he was therefore led to seek whether there were not signs of the moral affections similar to those which he believed he had discovered to indicate the intellectual powers. After some time he imagined that these affections also might be ascertained by discerning how far one portion of the head surpassed the others in size. His mind was now completely engrossed with the pursuit of facts to support his belief that he should find a complete key to the human character, and his academic career was marked by no particular success.

To further his pursuit, he resorted to the works of the most esteemed metaphysicians of ancient and modern days, but here he found nothing that at all favoured the view which he had been led to take of the

BIOG, DIV. VOL. III.

human mind. He therefore gave them up, and resorted again to observation alone, and he now extended his field. Being on terms of intimacy with Dr. Nord, physician to a lunatic asylum in Vienna, he carefully examined all the insane there, observing the peculiar character of the insanity in each, and the corresponding forms of their heads : he frequented prisons and courts of justice, and made notes of the crimes and appearance of all the prisoners. In short, wherever there was any person made remarkable by good or bad qualities, by ignorance, or by talent, Dr. Gall lost no opportunity of making him a subject of his study. With the same views he was constant in his study of the heads and characters of both wild and domesticated animals. He had always felt sure, that the form of the skull in itself alone could stand in no relation to the intellect or disposition, but it was not till late in his pursuit that he resorted to anatomy to confirm his views. Having obtained his diploma, he made it his care, as far as possible, to ask for leave to examine the brains of all whose characters and heads he had studied during life, and satisfied himself that, as a general rule, the exterior of the skull corresponds in form with the brain contained within it.

At length, after upwards of twenty years exertion and study, Dr. Gall delivered his first course of lectures, in 1796, at his house in Vienna. Supported by a vast accumulation of facts, he endeavoured to prove that the brain was the organ on which all external manifestations of the mind depended; that different portions of the brain were devoted to particular intellectual faculties or moral affections; that, cæteris paribus, these were developed in a degree proportioned to the size of the part on which they depended; and that, the external surface of the skull corresponding in form with the surface of the brain, the character of each individual was clearly discernible by an examination

of his head.

A doctrine so new, and so subversive of all that had been previously taught in psychology, produced no little excitement. To some the number of simple facts, the apparently clear and necessary deductions from them, and the ease with which the new system seemed to lead to the knowledge of a science hitherto so obscure, were sufficient to secure at once their assent, while others said that Gall, beginning with a theory, had found at will facts to support it; that a plurality of powers in the same organ was too absurd to be imagined, and that the doctrine, leading on the one hand to fatalism, on the other to materialism, would, if received, be subversive of all the bonds of society, and opposed to the truths of religion. It was argued with all the ardour with which new doctrines are so generally assailed and defended, but Gall took little part in these disputes, and still continued to lecture and collect more facts.

He gained disciples daily, and in 1800 Dr. Spurzheim became his pupil. In 1804 this gentleman was associated with him in the study of his theory, and to this event phrenology probably owes much of its present clearness and popularity. Spurzheim possessed a mind peculiarly adapted for generalising facts, of which phrenology at that time almost entirely consisted, and besides being most ardent and industrious in the pursuit of additional support for the doctrines, he had much suavity of manner and power of conversation.

Soon after their association, Drs. Gall and Spurzheim commenced a tour through the principal towns in Germany and Switzerland, diffusing their doctrines, and collecting everywhere with assiduous industry fresh evidence in their favour. In 1807 they arrived at Paris, which became at once the field of their principal labours, and of the most vehement discussion. It attracted the attention of Napoleon, who at first is said to have spoken in no measured terms of the savans of his country for "suffering themselves to be taught chemistry by an Englishman (Sir H. Davy), and anatomy by a German." He afterwards however expressed his disbelief in it, and hence the reason (say the most ardent supporters of the doctrine), why in 1809 the commission appointed by the Institute on the Mémoire' presented by Gall and Spurzheim, in March 1808, returned a report highly unfavourable both to phrenology and its author. Undaunted however by this severe check to their rising popularity, they continued to study and to teach both by lectures and by voluminous publications till 1813, when a dispute arising, partly as to the degree of credit which each merited for the condition at which phrenology had then arrived, partly from private motives, they separated. Dr. Gall remained in Paris; Dr. Spurzheim soon after proceeded to England.

Dr. Gall continued in Paris till his death, which occurred on the 22nd of August 1828. He had suffered for nearly two years previously from enlargement of the heart, which prevented him, except at intervals, from pursuing his lectures, and at length produced a slight attack of paralysis, from which he never recovered. At the post-mortem exami nation his skull was found to be of at least twice the usual thickness, and there was a small tumour in the cerebellum: a fact of some interest, from that being the portion of the brain in which he had placed the organ of amativeness, a propensity which had always been very strongly marked in him.

Whatever may be the merits of the phrenological system, Dr. Gall must always be looked upon as one of the remarkable men of his age. The leading features of his mind were originality and independence of thought, a habit of observation, and invincible perseverance and industry. Nothing perhaps but a character like this in its founder, and the very popular and fascinating manners of his chief supporter,

could have upheld the doctrine of phrenology against the strong tide of rational opposition and ridicule with which it was assailed. Whether the system be received or not, it will be granted that both in the collection of psychological facts which they had formed, and have published, and by the contributions which they have made to the study of the structure of the brain, to which their later labours had been particularly directed, they have conferred very great benefits on medical science. The character of Dr. Gall's writings is vivid and powerful; his descriptions, though slight, are accurate and striking; but his works are too voluminous to be acceptable to the majority of readers, and have therefore in this country been almost entirely superseded by those of Dr. Spurzheim, to which however in substantial value they are far superior. They comprise-Philosophisch-Modicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im Kranken, und Gesunden Zustande des Menschen,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1800; Anatomie et Physiologie du Systême Nerveux en général, et du Cerveau en particulier: Mémoire presenté a l'Institut, Mars, 1808;' and under the same title his great work in 4 vols. 4to, and atlas folio, published in Paris, from 1810 to 1819, of which the first and half the second volume were written in conjunction with Dr. Spurzheim; and Sur l'Origine des qualités morales et des Facultés intellectuelles de l'Homme,' 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1825. GALLAUDET, REV. THOMAS HOPKINS, to whom America is indebted for the introduction of instruction for the deaf and dumb, was born at Philadelphia, December 10, 1787. Having passed through Yale College, he commenced the study of the law, but being forced to abandon it, in consequence of ill-health, engaged for awhile in commercial pursuits; then, in 1814, entered the theological seminary at Andover, and upon being licensed to preach, was chosen pastor of a congregational church at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. While thus occupied he became much interested in a little deaf and dumb girl, Alice Cogswell, the daughter of a friend, and he was induced to attempt to instruct her. In this he was by great patience very successful, and her father, Dr. Cogswell of Hartford, was incited by the great benefit which his child had derived, to earnest efforts to extend the blessings of education to other children suffering under a similar deprivation. An association was formed, and funds being provided, a requisition was made to Mr. Gallaudet to resign his ministry, and proceed to Europe for the purpose of learning the system and organisation of the existing deaf and dumb institutions. After some hesitation, caused by a reluctance to separate from his flock, he accepted the offer, and in May 1815 embarked on his mission. He first addressed himself to the London Deaf and Dumb Asylum, but after considerable correspondence he was refused admission to the asylum, except as ordinary junior assistant, and to perform the usual drudgery of that class of assistants. As this he found would have obliged him to spend at least three years in the school, without any corresponding gain, he proceeded to Edinburgh, where there was an asylum in considerable reputation. But there, while the committee and master showed every sympathy with him, and would have been glad to assist him in his excellent object, there was an obstacle which it was found impossible to surmount. The teacher bad learnt his system from the Messrs. Braidwood [BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS], and had been compelled by them to sign an engagement not to impart the method to any other person intending to become a teacher. Thus baffled, Gallaudet was compelled to try Paris. Here he met from the Abbé Sicard a warm welcome. Everything was laid freely open to him, and every means that could be devised was used to accelerate his acquisition of the desired knowledge. He was able to return to America before the close of 1816, and the Abbé Sicard cheerfully consented to Lawrence Le Clerc, himself a deaf-mute, who had been one of the pupils, and was then one of the most valued teachers of the institution (he had indeed been already designated its 'glory and support '), accompanying him to America. During his absence in Europe, the society had been incorporated; Mr. Gallaudet was now appointed its principal, Le Clerc being his head assistant, and on the 15th of April 1817, 'The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb,' at Hartford, Connecticut, was formally opened.

Mr. Gallaudet remained the active head of the asylum until 1830, when he resigned from failing health. His devotion to his duties had been most exemplary, and his success as a teacher we are told was "uniform and pre-eminent." The system which he in conjunction with Mr. Le Clerc ultimately established, and which has been adopted in the other asylums (of which there are now fourteen) in the United States, was founded on that of the Abbé Sicard, but with very considerable modifications. It is known as the American system. The main principle with Mr. Gallaudet was to call out the intelligence of the pupil as much as possible, by exercising him in describing things for himself, and to discourage the mere learning by rote; and the result was to stimulate the mind of the teacher, as well as of the pupil, in no ordinary degree.

Mr. Gallaudet's exertions were by no means confined to the deaf and dumb asylum. He took an ardent and active interest in the improvement and extension of common schools, and in the raising up of a superior body of teachers, and wrote several pamphlets on the subject. He also zealously advocated the adoption of means of imparting moral and religious training to prisoners; and he was an earnest promoter of the movement for improving the management of

the insane. So strongly did he feel on this matter that, though in but feeble health, he accepted in 1838 the office of chaplain of the State 'Retreat for the Insane,' at Hartford; where, it is stated, "the experience of each successive year furnished accumulating evidence of the usefulness of his labours, and the efficacy of kind moral treatment, and a wise religious influence in the melioration and care of the insane."

He died on the 10th of September 1851. About twelve months before his death, the good old man, and his colleague Mr. Le Clerc, had the gratification of receiving from the deaf-mutes in America, as a testimonial of their gratitude, a service of plate each; and on the death of Gallaudet, his fellow-citizens proposed to erect a monument to his memory, as a mark of their sense of his services; but as soon as their intention became known, the deaf and dumb urged their superior claim to the performance of that duty, and accordingly a handsome and costly monument was erected to his memory at Hartford, at the "sole expense of the deaf-mutes of the United States; the designer and the architect of the monument being both deaf and dumb persons.

The publications of Mr. Gallaudet are numerous, but chiefly pamphlets on the education of the deaf and dumb, and on other educational matters; lesson books; and articles in educational journals. But he also published a volume of sermons, and some books for the young, one of which, The Child's Book of the Soul,' had an extended popularity both in America and England, and was translated into French, Spanish, Italian, and German. (Barnard, Tribute to Gallaudet, Svo, Hartford, U.S., 1852.) GALLIE'NUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS, son of the Emperor Valerianus, was made Cæsar and colleague to his father A.D. 253. In a great battle near Milan he defeated the Alemanni and other northern tribes which had made an irruption into North Italy, and gave evidence of his personal bravery and abilities. He was also well informed in literature, and was both an orator and a poet. When Valerianus was taken prisoner by the Persians, in 260, Gallienus took the reins of government, and was acknowledged as Augustus. He appears to have given himself up to debauchery and the company of profligate persons, neglecting the interests of the empire, and taking no steps to effect the release of his father from his hard captivity, in which he died. The barbarians attacked the empire on every side; revolts broke out in various provinces, where several commanders assumed the title of emperor, whilst Gallienus was loitering at Rome with his favourites and mistresses. Yet now and then he seemed to awaken from his torpor at the news of the advance of the invaders, and, putting himself at the head of the legions, he defeated Ingenus, who had usurped the imperial title in Illyricum. But he disgraced his victory by horrible cruelties. Meantime Probus, Aurelianus, and other able commanders, were strenuously supporting the honour of the Roman arms in the east, where Odenatus, prince of Palmyra, acted as a useful ally of the Romans against the Persians. Usurpers arose in Egypt, in the Gauls, in Thrace, in almost every province of the empire, from which circumstance this period has been styled the reign of the thirty tyrants.' At last Aureolus, a man of obscure birth (some say a Dacian shepherd originally), but a brave soldier, was proclaimed emperor by the troops in Illyricum, entered Italy, took possession of Milan, and even marched against Rome while Gallienus was absent. Gallienus returned quickly, repulsed Aureolus, and defeated him in a great battle near the Adda, after which the usurper shut himself up in Milan, where he was besieged by Gallienus; but during the siege the emperor was murdered by some conspirators, in 268. He was succeeded by Claudius II. Trebellius Pollio has written a history of the reign of Gallienus. See also Zonaras, Aurelius Victor, and Eutropius.

British Museum. Actual size. Copper gilt. Weight 223 grains. GALLUS, AELIUS, a contemporary of Cicero, and a learned jurist, wrote a treatise on the signification of terms (Gellius, x. 22), from which a single excerpt is given in the 'Digest' (50, tit. 16, s. 157).

GALLUS, C. AQUILIUS, was a Roman eques and a friend of Cicero. He was prætor B.C. 66. Gallus was a pupil of Q. Mucius Scævola, the Pontifex, and obtained a great reputation as a jurist. He was both a skilful advocate and a learned expounder of the law. The distinguished jurist Servius Sulpicius was a pupil of Gallus, and either edited his works or incorporated them in his own writings. Gallus was prætor in the same year that Cicero was, and presided on the trials on 'ambitus' (bribery at elections); and accordingly Cicero

calls him his colleague (Topica,' 7), and in another passage he has preserved the legal definition of Littus which Gallus on some occasion gave. (Topica,' 12.) Gallus was the author of an edictal rule or formula as to dolus malus (fraud) in matters of buying and selling, which he promulgated as prætor. (Cic., 'De Officiis,' iii. 14; 'Dig.' 9, tit. 2.) The Lex Aquilia, which gave the actio damni injuria ('Dig.' 9, tit. 2; Gaius, iii. 210), was not proposed by this Aquilius, but by a tribune Aquilius. The high opinion which Cicero entertained of his friend Gallus is expressed in his oration Pro A. Cæcina (c. 27), where he pronounces upon him a eulogium which few lawyers have merited: "The authority of such a man can never have too much weight, whose judgment the Roman people have seen tried in providing security against fraud, not in showing how fraud may be practised; a man who never separated the principles of law (jus civile) from those of equity, who for so many years dedicated his genius, his industry, and his integrity to the Roman people, which integrity was ever ready and ever at command; who is so great and good a man that he seems to have been formed a lawyer by nature, and not by education; so skilful and so learned that not knowledge only but goodness too appears to be the product of the law; whose genius is so powerful, whose integrity so manifest, that whatever you draw from that source you will find to be pure and clear." Cicero's oration Pro P. Quintio was made before Gallus as judex. Gallus is cited several times in the 'Digest' (50, tit. 16, s. 77; 46, tit. 4, s. 18, &c.), but there is no excerpt from his writings. Gallus devised or expounded some clauses of the formula of Accepitalio. ('Dig.' 46, tit. 4, s. 18.) GALLUS, JULIUS AQUILA, or Julius Gallus Aquila, a jurist under the empire, of uncertain date. There are two excerpts in the 'Digest' from his 'Liber Responsorum' (26, tit. 7, s. 34; and 26, tit. 10, s. 12). GALT, JOHN, was born at Irvine in Ayrshire, on the 2nd of May 1779. His father, a sea-captain in the West India trade, removed to Greenock, when John was about eleven years of age; and in that busy town he received an education for commercial pursuits. He spent some time as a clerk in the Greenock custom-house; whence he was transferred, in the same character, to the counting-house of a mercantile firm in the place. When he was between twenty and twenty-five years of age he left Scotland for London, where he intended to establish himself as a merchant. His literary propensities however which had previously led him into frequent compositions, were further nourished by a few months of inaction in the metropolis. The result was, the production of a poem in octo-syllabic verse called 'The Battle of Largs,' portions of which were printed in the 'Scots' Magazine,' 1803 and 1804; and on the originality of which (as having preceded Sir Walter Scott's metrical romances) he prided himself not a little in after-life. Other studies, chiefly in history and political economy, were prosecuted occasionally after he had embarked in commerce. This he had done in partnership with another young Scotchman; but the partners disagreed, their affairs became entangled, and in about three years the firm was bankrupt. After a short attempt to re-establish himself in business along with a brother, Mr. Galt entered himself at Lincoln's Inn; but determining (partly for the sake of his health) to spend abroad some part of the time before his being called to the bar, he left England in 1809.

His travels lasted for nearly three years. He afterwards described them in two works: Voyages and Travels in the years 1809, 1810, and 1811, containing Statistical, Commercial, and Miscellaneous Observations on Gibraltar, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and Turkey,' 1812, 4to; and 'Letters from the Levant, containing Views of the State of Society, Manners, Opinions, and Commerce, in Greece and several of the Principal Islands of the Archipelago,' 1813, 8vo. Soon after his return he married Elizabeth, daughter of Dr. Tilloch, the editor of the 'Philosophical Magazine,' and also proprietor of the 'Star' newspaper, on which Mr. Galt was for some time employed. By this lady he left two sons. He now wrote the following works:-The Life and Administration of Cardinal Wolsey,' 1812, 4to, 1818, 8vo; 'Reflections on Political and Commercial Subjects,' 1812, 8vo; a volume of Tragedies' (Maddalen, Agamemnon, Lady Macbeth, Antonia, and Clytemnestra), 1812, 4to; The Life and Studies of Benjamin West, Esq.,' 1816, 8vo, 1818, 8vo. He edited also, during its short career, 'The New British Theatre,' which was at first intended to contain a series of dramas rejected by the managers; and in which, besides other contributions of the editor, was printed a vigorous tragedy called 'The Witness.' These productions however were composed in the intervals left by undertakings of other kinds, chiefly commercial. In the course of his travels he had devised a scheme for importing British goods into the Continent by way of Turkey, notwithstanding Napoleon's decrees of exclusion; and he spent some time in vain endeavours to obtain support for this plan. On another occasion he acted as a parliamentary agent for a Scottish canal bill. He had given up the study of the law, but he was desirous to obtain a footing in some department of active business, entertaining a strong reluctance to making literature the main employment of his life.

Down to this time, indeed, his literary success had by no means been great. His works had not generally obtained credit even for the shrewdness and comprehensiveness of thinking, and the acute observation of life, which they really evinced: while his tendency to paradox in opinion, his oddity and clumsiness of language, and the

GALT, JOHN.

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coarseness with which his vigour was alloyed, had furnished topics of ridicule to some who thought his works worth criticising. He was hardly more successful in his next literary attempt, 'The Earthquake,' 3 vols. 12mo, 1820, a serious novel, marked by that clumsy and gloomy strength of feeling which pervaded his dramas. But he now hit upon the ground in which lay his strength, the deliueation of familiar Scottish life, in his own admirable vein of quaint, shrewd, homely, observant humour. In 1820 and 1821 his Ayrshire Legatees' appeared in successive numbers of ‘Blackwood's Magazine;' and the work was immediately published separately. Its popularity encouraged him to a series of sketches similar in character. The next of these was The Annals of the Parish,' 1821; which however had been written several years before. Then came the Provost,' 'The Steamboat,' and 'Sir Andrew Wyllie' (3 vols.), all in 1822; The Gathering of the West,' in 1823; and then in a somewhat different style, 'The Entail,' 3 vols. 1823; and two historical novels, Ringhan Gilhaize' and 'The Spae-wife,' in 1823.

The reputation which Mr. Galt had acquired for activity in business, and for acquaintance with the principles and practice of commerce, now opened up for him the most brilliant prospects of his life. Certain inhabitants of Canada gave him a commission as their agent, to prosecute their claims on the home government for losses which they had suffered during the occupation of the province by the forces of the United States. The negociations arising out of this affair issued in the adoption by the government of a proposal made by Mr. Galt, to sell crown lands in Upper Canada, for the purpose of defraying the claims of his constituents. The Canada Company, incorporated in 1826, undertook to purchase those lands and to colonise them. Before the company obtained its charter, Mr. Galt had gone out as one of the government commissioners for valuing the lands, and had returned to England in the summer of 1825. In the autumu of 1826, when the sales had taken place, he was sent out by the Company, being at first employed in making inquiries for them and in arranging their system of management; but afterwards as the superintendent of their operations. Under his direction were founded the earliest of the settlements which have since risen into importance: Guelph was entirely a place of his making; and the village of Galt received its name from him. His conduct however, although distinguished by great intelligence, energy, and enterprise, appears to have been deficient not only in commercial caution, but in deference both to the provincial government and to his employers at home, and he himself maintained that the colonial authorities were prejudiced against him as a democrat, by misrepresentations of the tenor of his books of travels. The governor, Sir Peregrine Maitland, sent home complaints against him; alarm was excited about the Company's affairs; and the directors superseded him. He returned to England in the spring of 1829, after a residence of about two years and a half. Soon afterwards, being pressed by some of his creditors, he took the benefit of the Insolvent Debtors' Act.

After this unfortunate catastrophe, Mr. Galt, now fifty years old, did not again make any sustained attempt at obtaining mercantile occupation. The embarrassment of his affairs forced him upon authorship for the subsistence of himself and his family, and although he was not able to produce any work comparable to the few which had gained for him his literary celebrity, the circumstances in which his exertions were made were such as to render his active industry at once meritorious and touching. His earliest works in this period were his novels of 'Lawrie Todd' and 'Southennan,' and the caustic Life of Lord Byron,' 1830. While writing the last of these he undertook the editorship of the 'Courier' newspaper, which however he very speedily resigned. His health now broke up rapidly. He had already had a slight shock of paralysis; a second occurred soon after his withdrawal from the newspaper. But his literary exertions were never relaxed, unless for a short time, when he attempted the formation of a new American Land Company.

About midsummer 1832 paralysis recurred with increased violence; and from that time he was a confirmed invalid. He retired to Scotland, where repeated attacks of palsy made his body an utter wreck, but with surprisingly little effect on his courage or on the vigour of his intellect. His memory failed much, but his invention was active to the last. He continued to dictate his compositions long after he had lost the use of every limb. Volume after volume, so composed, and committed to the press, as he himself said, "to wrench life from famine," ought to receive, not the unfavourable judgment merited by unavoidable defects, but the compassionate forbearance due to the manly fortitude of the ill-fated author. Among these fruits of decay, there were, besides several novels and tales, and contributions to periodicals, two works which give, in a very incomplete and disjointed state, much information about his life and writings: The Autobiography of John Galt,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1833; and The Literary Life and Miscellanies of John Galt,' 3 vols. 12mo, 1834.

Mr. Galt died at Greenock on the 11th of April 1839, when he had almost completed his sixtieth year, and a few days after he had suffered his fourteenth stroke of palsy. The list of his writings, as given by himself (perhaps incompletely, and omitting many papers furnished to periodicals), is very large. His novels alone are twentyfour in number, making about fifty volumes; his dramas are hardly less numerous; his biographical and miscellaneous works are even more so.