I. "Having been anointed by the Holy Spirit he received the title of the anointed (i.e. Christos), suffering in accordance with his nature, working wonders in accordance with grace. For in fixity and resoluteness of character he likened himself to God: and having kept himself free from sin was united with God, and was empowered to grasp as it were the power and authority of wonders. By these he was shown to possess over and above the will, one and the same activity (with God), and won the title of Redeemer and Saviour of our race." II. "The Saviour became holy and just; and by struggle and hard work overcame the sins of our forefather. By these means he succeeded in perfecting himself, and was through his moral excellence united with God, having attained to unity and sameness of will and energy (i.e. activity) with Him through his advances in the path of good deeds. This will be preserved inseparable (from the Divine), and so inherited the name which is above all names, the prize of love and affection vouchsafed in grace to him."

III." The different natures and the different persons admit of union in one way alone, namely in the way of a complete agreement in respect of will, and thereby is revealed the One (or Monad) in activity in the case of those (wills) which have coalesced in the manner described."

IV. "We do not award praise to beings which submit merely in virtue of their nature; but we do award high praise to beings which submit because their attitude is one of love; and so submitting because their inspiring motive is one and the same, they are confirmed and strengthened by one and the same indwelling power, of which the force ever grows, so that it never ceases to stir. It was in virtue of this love that the Saviour coalesced with God, so as to admit of no divorce from Him, but for all ages to retain one and the same will and activity with Him, an activity perpetually at work in the manifestation of good." V. "Wonder not that the Saviour had one will with God. For as nature manifests the substance of the many to subsist as one and the same, so the attitude of love produces in the many an unity and sameness of will which is manifested by unity and sameness of approval and well-pleasingness."

From other fairly attested sources we infer that Paul regarded the baptism as a landmark indicative of a great stage in the moral advance of Jesus. But it was a man and not the divine Logos which was born of Mary. Jesus was a man who came to be God, rather than God become man. Paul's Christology therefore was of the Adoptionist type, which we find among the primitive Ebionite Christians of Judaca, in Hermas, Theodotus and Artemon of Rome, and in Archelaus the opponent of Mani, and in the other great doctors of the Syrian Church of the 4th and 5th centuries. Lucian the great exegete of Antioch and his school derived their inspiration from Paul, and he was through Lucian a forefather of Arianism. Probably the Paulicians of Armenia continued his tradition, and hence their name (see PAULICIANS).

Paul of Samosata represented the high-water mark of Christian speculation; and it is deplorable that the fanaticism of his own and of succeeding generations has left us nothing but a few scattered fragments of his writings. Already at the Council of Nicaea in 325 the Pauliani were put outside the Church and condemned to be rebaptized. It is interesting to note that at the synod of Antioch the use of the word consubstantial to denote the relation of God the Father to the divine Son or Logos was condemned, although it afterwards became at the

Council of Nicaea the watchword of the orthodox faction.

LITERATURE. Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. i.; Gieseler's Compendium of Ecclesiastical History (Edinburgh, 1854), vol. i.; Routh, Reliquiae sacrae, vol. iii.; F. C. Conybeare, Key of Truth (Oxford); Hefele, History of the Christian Councils (Edinburgh, 1872), vol. i.; Ch. Bigg, The Origins of Christianity (Oxford, 1909), (F. C. C.)

ch. xxxv.

PAULDING, JAMES KIRKE (1778-1860), American writer and politician, was born in Dutchess county, New York, on the 22nd of August 1778. After a brief course at a village school, he removed in 1800 to New York City, where in connexion

he began in January 1807 a series of short lightly humorous articles, under the title of The Salmagundi Papers. In 1814 he published a political pamphlet, "The United States and England," which attracted the notice of President Madison, who in 1815 appointed him secretary to the board of navy commissioners, which position he held until November 1823. Subsequently Paulding was navy agent in New York City from 1825 to 1837, and from 1837 to 1841 was secretary of the navy in the cabinet of President Van Buren. From 1841 until his death on the 6th of April 1860 he lived near Hyde Park, in Dutchess county, New York. Although much of his literary work consisted of political journalism, he yet found time to write a large number of essays, poems and tales. From his father, an active revolutionary patriot, Paulding inherited strong anti-British sentiments. He was among the first distinctively American writers, and protested vigorously against intellectual thraldom to the mother-country. As a prose writer he is chaste and elegant, generally just, and realistically descriptive. As a poet he is gracefully commonplace, and the only lines by Paulding which survive in popular memory are

the familiar

"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers:

Where is the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked ?" which may be found in Koningsmarke.

The following is a partial list of his writings: The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan (1812); The Lay of the Scottish Fiddle (1813), a good-natured parody on The Lay of the Last Minstrel; Letters from the South (1817); The Backwoodsman: a Poem (1818) Salmagundi (2nd series, 1819-1820); A Sketch of Old England, by a New England Man (1822); Koningsmarke, the Long Finne (1823). a quiz on the romantic school of Walter Scott; John Bull in America; or the New Munchausen (1824), a broad caricature of the early type of British traveller in America; The Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham (1826); Chronicles of the City of Gotham, from the Papers of a Retired Common Councilman (1830); The Dutchman's Fireside (1831); Westward IIol (1832); A Life of Washington (1835). ably and gracefully written; Slavery in the United States (1836), in which he defends slavery as an institution; The Book of Saint Nicholas (1837), a series of stories of the old Dutch settlers; American Comedies (1847), the joint production of himself and his son William

J. Paulding; and The Puritan and his Daughter (1849). The same son also published an edition of Paulding's Select Works (4 vols., 1867-1868), and a biography called Literary Life of James K. Paulding (New York, 1867).

PAULET, POULETT or POWLETT, an English family of an ancient Somersetshire stock, taking a surname from the parish of Pawlett near Bridgwater. They advanced themselves by in Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Devonshire and Hampshire. a series of marriages with heirs, acquiring manors and lands A match with a Denebaud early in the 15th century brought the earls Poulett. An ancestor of this branch, Sir Amias Poulett manor of Hinton St George, still the seat of the elder line. the or Paulet (d. 1537), knighted in 1487 after the battle of Stoke, was treasurer of the Middle Temple in 1521, when Wolsey, in the future chancellor was a young parson at Limington, forbade revenge for an indignity suffered at the knight's hands when his leaving London without leave. To propitiate the cardinal, with the cardinal's arms and badge. Sir Hugh Poulett, his Sir Amias, rebuilding the Middle Temple gate, decorated it eldest son, a soldier who had distinguished himself in 1544 at Boulogne in the king's presence, had, in 1551, a patent of the captaincy of Jersey with the governance of Montorgueil Castle. employ him at Havre in 1562 as adviser to the earl of Warwick. His wisdom and experience in the wars made Queen Elizabeth He died in 1572, having married, as his second wife, the wealthy widow of Sir Thomas Pope, founder of Trinity College, Oxford. Sir Amias Poulett (1536-1588), Sir Hugh's son and heir by a first marriage, is famous as the puritan knight into whose charge at Tutbury and Chartley was given the queen of Scots. After his prisoner's sentence at Fotheringhay, he beset Elizabeth's ministers with messages advising her execution, but he firmly withstood "with great grief and bitterness," the suggestion that she should be put to death secretly, saying that God and the law forbade. Sir Anthony Poulett (1562–1600),

A younger line of the Paulets, sprung from William Paulet of Melcombe, serjeant-at-law (d. 1435), reached higner honours than an earldom. William Paulet, by his marriage with Eleanor Delamare (d. 1413), daughter of Philip Delamare and heir of her brother, acquired for his descendants Fisherton Delamare in Wiltshire and Nunney Castle in Somerset. Their son Sir John Paulet married Constance, daughter and coheir of Hugh Poynings, son and heir of Sir Thomas Poynings, Lord St John of Basing. Through this marriage came the lordship and manor of Basing, and the manor of Amport or Ham Port which is still with the descendants of Hugh de Port, its Norman lord at the time of the Domesday Survey. Sir John Paulet of Basing, by his cousin Alice Paulet of the Hinton line (his wife in or before 1467), was father of Sir William Paulet, who, during a very long and supple career as a statesman in four reigns-"I am sprung," he said, "from the willow and not from the oak "--raised his house to a marquessate. Henry VIII. rewarded his diplomatic and judicial services and his campaign against the Pilgrims of Grace with the site and lands of Netley Abbey, the, revival of the St John barony, a garter and many high offices. The king's death found him lord president of the council and one of the executors of the famous will of the sovereign. The fall of the protector Somerset gave him the lord treasurership and a patent of the earldom of Wiltshire. He shared the advancement of Northumberland and was created in 1551 marquess of Winchester, but, although he delivered the crown jewels to the Lady Jane in 1553, he was with the lords at Baynard Castle who proclaimed Queen Mary. In spite of his great age he was in the saddle at the proclamation of Mary's successor and was speaker in two Elizabethan parliaments. Only his death in 1572 drove from office this tenacious treasurer, whose age may have been nigh upon a hundred years.

His princely house at Basing was held for King Charles by John, the fifth marquess, whose diamond had scratched " Aimez Loyauté" upon every pane of its windows. Looking on a main road, Basing, with its little garrison of desperate cavaliers, held out for two years against siege and assault, and its shattered walls were in flames about its gallant master when Cromwell himself stormed an entry. The old cavalier marquess died in 1675, his great losses unrecompensed, and his son Charles, a morose extravagant, had the, dukedom of Bolton in 1689 for his desertion of the Stuart cause. This new title was taken from the Bolton estates of the Scropes, Lord Winchester having married a natural daughter of Emmanuel, earl of Sunderland, the last Lord Scrope of Bolton. Charles, second duke of Bolton (1661-1722), was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1717. A third Charles, the 3rd duke, is remembered as an opponent of Sir Robert Walpole and as the husband of Lavinia

last duke of Bolton, an admiral of undistinguished services, died in 1794 without legitimate issue. His dukedom became extinct, and Bolton Castle again passed by bequest to an illegitimate daughter of the fifth duke, upon whom it had been entailed with the greater part of the ducal estates. (O. BA.) PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882), German historian, was born in Berlin on the 25th of May 1823. He was educated at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, went to England in 1847, and became private secretary to Baron von Bunsen, the Prussian ambassador in London. Returning to Germany in 1855 he was professor of history successively at the universities of Rostock, Tübingen (which he left in 1866 because of his political views), Marburg and Göttingen. He retained his chair at Göttingen until his death at Bremen on the 3rd of June 1882. He was a careful and industrious student of the English records, and his writings are almost wholly devoted to English history. His first work, König Aelfred und seine Stellung in der Geschichte Englands (Berlin, 1851), was followed by monographs on Bischof Grosseteste und Adam von Marsh (Tübingen, 1864), and on Simon von Montfort (Tübingen, 1867). He continued J. M. Lappenberg's Geschichte von England from 1154 to 1509 (Gotha, 1853-1858), and himself wrote a Geschichte Englands (Leipzig, 1864-1875), dealing with the period between 1814 and 1852. Two volumes of historical essays, Bilder aus All-England (Gotha, 1860 and 1876), and Aufsätze zur englischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1869 and 1883), and numerous historical articles in German periodicals came from his pen; and he edited several of the English chroniclers for the Monumenta Germaniae historica.

See R. Pauli, Lebenserinnerungen, edited by E. Pauli (Halle, 1895), and the sketch of his life prefixed to O. Hartwig's edition of his Aufsätze (Leipzig, 1883).

PAULICIANS, an evangelical Christian Church spread over Asia Minor and Armenia from the 5th century onwards. The first Armenian writer who notices them is the patriarch Nerses II. in an encyclical of 553,' where he condemns those "who share with Nestorians in belief and prayer, and take their breadofferings to their shrines and receive communion from them, as if from the ministers of the oblations of the Paulicians." The patriarch John IV. (c. 728) states that Nerses, his predecessor, had chastised the sect, but ineffectually; and that after his death (c. 554) they had continued to lurk in Armenia, where, reinforced by Iconoclasts driven out of Albania of the Caucasus, they had settled in the region of Djirka, probably near Lake Van. In his 31st canon John identifies them with the Messalians, as does the Armenian Gregory of Narek (c. 950). In Albania they were always numerous. We come now to Greek sources. An anonymous account was written perhaps as early as 840 and incorporated in the Chronicon of Georgius Monachus. This (known as Esc.) was edited by J. Friedrich in the Munich Academy Sitzungsberichte (1896), from a 10thcentury Escorial codex (Plut. 1, No. 1). It was also used by Photius (c. 867), bk. i., chs. 1-10 of his Historia Manicheorum, who, having held an inquisition of Paulicians in Constantinople was able to supplement Esc. with a few additional details; and by Petrus Siculus (c. 868). The latter visited the Paulician fortress Tephrike to treat for the release of Byzantine prisoners. His History of the Manicheans is dedicated to the archbishop of Bulgaria, whither the Paulicians were sending missionaries. Zigabenus (c. 1100), in his Panoplia, uses beside Esc. an independent source.

The Paulicians were, according to Esc., Manicheans, so called after Paul of Samosata (q.v.), son of a Manichean woman Callinice. She sent him and her other son John to Armenia as missionaries, and they settled at the village of Episparis,

or

'seedplot," in Phanarea. One Constantine, however, of Mananali, a canton on the western Euphrates 60-70 m. west of Erzerum, was regarded by the Paulicians as their real founder. He based his teaching on the Gospels and the Epistles of Paul, repudiating other scriptures; and taking the Pauline name of Silvanus, organized churches in Castrum Colonias and Cibossa, which he called Macedonia, after Paul's congregation of that 1 In the Armenian Letterbook of the Patriarchs (Tiflis, 1901), p. 73. 2 Opera (Venetiae, 1834), p. 89.

name.

His successors were Simeon, called Titus; Gegnesius, an Armenian, called Timotheus; Joseph, called Epaphroditus; Zachariah, rejected by some; Baanes, accused of immoral teaching; lastly Sergius, called Tychicus. As Cibossa, so their other congregations were renamed, Mananali as Achaea, Argaeum and Cynoschôra as Colossae, Mopsuestia as Ephesus, and so on. Photius and Petrus Siculus supply a few dates and events. Constantine was martyred 684 by Simeon whom Constantine Pogonatus had sent to repress the movement. His victim's death so impressed him that he was converted, became head of the sect, and was martyred in 690 by Justinian II. About 702 Paul the Armenian, who had fled to Episparis, became head of the church. His son Gegnesius in 722, was taken to Constantinople, where he won over to his opinions the iconoclast emperor, Leo the Isaurian. He died in 745, and was succeeded by Joseph, who evangelized Phrygia and died near Antioch of Pisidia in 775. In 752 Constantine V. transplanted many Paulicians from Germanicia, Doliché, Melitene, and Theodosiupolis (Erzerum), to Thrace, to defend the empire from Bulgarians and Sclavonians. Early in the 9th century Sergius, greatest of the leaders, profiting by the tolerance of the emperor Nicephorus, began that ministry which, in one of the epistles canonized by the sect, but lost, he describes thus: "I have run from east to west, and from north to south, till my knees were weary, preaching the gospel of Christ." The iconoclast emperor Leo V., an Armenian, persecuted the sect afresh, and provoked a rising at Cynoschōra, whence many fled into Saracen territory to Argaeum near Melitene. For the next 50 years they continued to raid the Byzantine empire, although Sergius condemned retaliation. The empress Theodora (842-857) hung, crucified, beheaded or drowned some 100,000 of them, and drove yet more over the frontier, where from Argaeum, Amara, Tephriké and other strongholds their generals Karbeas and Chrysocheir harried the empire, until 873, when the emperor Basil slew Chrysocheir and took Tephriké.

Their sect however continued to spread in Bulgaria, where in 969 John Zimiskes settled a new colony of them at Philippopolis. Here Frederick Barbarossa found them in strength in 1189. In Armenia they reformed their ranks about 821 at Thonrak (Tendarek) near Diadin, and were numerous all along the eastern Euphrates and in Albania. In this region Smbat, of the great Bagraduni clan, reorganized their Church, and was succeeded during a space of 170 or 200 years by seven leaders, enumerated by the Armenian Grigor Magistros, who as duke of Mesopotamia under Constantine Monomachos harried them about 1140. Fifty years later they were numerous in Syria and Cilicia, according to the Armenian bishops Nerses the Graceful and Nerses of Lambron. In the 10th century Gregory of Narek wrote against them in Armenian, and in the 11th Aristaces of Lastivert and Paul of Taron in the same tongue. During these later centuries their propaganda embraced all Armenia. The crusaders found them everywhere in Syria and Palestine, and corrupted their name to Publicani, under which name, often absurdly conjoined with Sadducaei, we find them during the ages following the crusades scattered all over Europe. After 1200 we can find no notice of them in Armenian writers until the 18th century, when they reappear in their old haunts. In 1828 a colony of them settled in Russian Armenia, bringing with them a book called the Key of Truth, which contains their rites of name-giving, baptism and election, compiled from old MSS.,' we know not when.

"

"

on

1That this is so, is proved by the presence of a doublet in the text of the rite of baptism, the words " But the penitent p. 96, as far as "over the person baptized" on p. 97, repeating in substance the words "Next the elect one on p. 97 to am wellpleased on p. 98. This rite therefore was compiled from at least two earlier MSS. In the colophon also the compiler (as he calls himself) excuses the errors of orthography and grammar on the ground that they are not due to himself but to earlier and ig. norant copyists. The division (often inept) of the text into chapters, the references to chapter and verse of a printed N.T., and sundry pious stanzas which interrupt the context, are due to a later editor, perhaps to the copyist of the existing text of 1782. The controversial introduction is later than the Crusades; but the rituals, as far as

Regarding Paulician beliefs we have little except hostile evidence, which needs sifting. Esc. gives these particulars:1. They anathematized Mani, yet were dualists and affirmed two principles-one the heavenly Father, who rules not this world but the world to come; the other an evil demiurge, lord and god of this world, who made all flesh. The good god created angels only. The Romans (i.e. the Byzantines) erred in confusing these two first principles. Similarly the Armenian writer Gregory Magistros (c. 1040) accuses the Thonraki of teaching that "Moses saw not God, but the devil," and infers thence that they held Satan to be creator of heaven and earth, as well as of mankind. The Key of Truth teaches that after the fall Adam and Eve and their children were slaves of Satan until the advent of the newly created Adam, Jesus Christ. Except Gregory Magistros none of the Armenian sources lays stress on the dualism of the Paulicians. John IV. does not hint at it.

2. They blasphemed the Virgin, allegorizing her as the upper Jerusalem in which the Lord came in and went out, and denying that he was really made flesh of her. John IV. records that in the orthodox Armenian Church of the 7th century many held Christ to have been made flesh in, but not of, the Virgin; and Armenian hymns call the Virgin mother church at once Theotokos and heavenly Jerusalem. It is practically certain that Paulicians held this view.

3. They allegorized the Eucharist and explained away the bread and wine of which Jesus said to His apostles, "Take, eat and drink," as mere words of Christ, and denied that we ought to offer bread and wine as a sacrifice:

Such allegorization meets us already in Origen, Eusebius and other early fathers, and is quite compatible with that use of a material Eucharist which Nerses II. attests among the Paulicians of the early 6th century, and for which the Key of Truth provides a form. The Thonraki, according to Gregory Magistros, held that "Jesus in the evening meal, spoke not of an offering of the mass, but of every table.". We infer that the Paulicians merely rejected the Eucharistic rites and doctrine of the Greeks. According to Gregory Magistros the Thonraki would say: "We are no worshippers of matter, but of God; we reckon the cross and the church and the priestly robes and the sacrifice of mass all for nothing, and only lay stress on the inner sense."

4. They assailed the cross, saying that Christ is cross, and that we ought not to worship the tree, because it is a cursed instrument. John IV. and other Armenian writers report the same of the Armenian Paulicians or Thonraki, and add that they smashed up crosses when they could.

5. They repudiated Peter, calling him a denier of Christ, and would not accept his repentance and tears.2 So Gregory alone suits the adoptionist Christology of the prayers. the language is concerned, may belong to the remote age which

2 In a fragmentary Syriac homily by Mar Jochanis, found in a Sinai MS. written not later than the 10th century and edited by J. F. Stenning and F. C. Burkitt, Anecdota oxon. (Clarendon Press, 1896), the same hostility to Peter is expressed. Compare by Paulos thy colleague. How do men say that upon Petros I the following passages: "O Petros, thou wast convicted of fault have built the church?

The Lord said not to him, upon thee I build the church, but he said, upon this rock (the which is the body wherewith the Lord was from the N.T. that that rock was the Messiah. clothed) I build my church.

Behold, I have made thee know

"O Petros, after that thou didst receive the keys of heaven, and the Lord was seen by thee after he rose from the dead, thou didst let go of the keys, and thy wage is agreed with thy master when thou saidst to him, Behold we have let go of everything and have come after thee. What then shall be to us? And the Lord said to him, Ye shall be sitting on twelve thrones and judging the tribes of Israel. And after all these signs, O Petros, thou wentest away again to the former catching of fish. Wast thou ashamed of me, O Petros? "

Yet the same homilist "concerning the one who is made a priest," writes thus: "Lo, thou seest the priest of the people, with what care the Lord instructed Peter! He said not to him once and stopped, but three times, Feed my sheep." The Syriac text is rendered from a Greek original of unknown age, which from its complete correspondence with the Key of Truth may be judged to have been a Paulician writing.