Khélat

the hereditary viceroy of Egypt. Vali ('viceroy') was used until 1867. Since the British occupation of Egypt the Khedive's power has been almost nominal. Abbas Hilmi Pasha (1874), the present Khedive, the great-great-greatgrandson of Mehemet Ali, the founder of the dynasty, succeeded his father in 1892.

Khélat, or KELAT, a dist. at the N.E. angle of Baluchistan, and is for the most part barren, arid, and sparsely populated. Pop. (1901) 354,925. The fortified capital, Khelat, is the residence of the Khan or ruler of Baluchistan, who is himself a vassal of the British sovereign. It is dominated by a citadel containing the khan's palace. Pop. about 12,000.

Kheri, tn. and dist., United Provinces, India, 72 m. N. of Lucknow. Pop. dist. (1901) 905,138; tn. 6,223.

Kherson. (1.) Government S. W. Russia, has the Black Sea to the s. and Bessarabia to the w. Area, 27,523 sq. m.; pop. (1897) 2,732,832. Almost the whole is steppe land, lying between the Dnieper and the Dniester. Cattle-raising is the chief occupation. The vine, hemp, flax, tobacco, and mustard are grown. The fisheries are important. Manufactures have been greatly developed of recent years. Wool, furs, sheepskins, tobacco, cereals, butter, cheese, and caviare are exported. An important feature of the province is to be found in the limans, or lagune-estuaries, along the Black Sea coast. Over fifty German agricultural colonies exist. (2.) Capital of the above gov., 15 m. from the sea, on the w. side of the Dnieper estuary. It contains an observatory, a marine training college, and two naval shipyards. Kherson was founded in 1778 by Potemkin, the favorite of Catherine II. His tomb is in the cathedral. John Howard, the English prison reformer, died here in 1796. Pop. (1897) 69,219.

Kherson (of the Crimea), tn., mostly ruined, in the south-western extremity of the Crimea, 2 m. w. of Sevastopol. Here was the traditional scene of the martyrdom of St. Clement of Rome.

Khingan Mts., two ranges in E. Asia. (1.) GREAT K. separates the Gobi desert plateau from Manchuria. It commences in about 44° N. lat. and 118° 20′ E. long., and runs first N.N.E., then N. to Argun R., near its confluence with Shilka; here the Amur commences. In 1720-1 it was violently agitated by eruptions and earthquakes. Its highest peaks reach about 8,000 ft. (2.) LITTLE K. lies mainly to the s. of the Middle Amur, and E. of the Great Khingan. It really continues N. of the Amur up to about 53° N. lat.

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The Little Khingan proper does not exceed 3,300 ft., but in the hills that unite the two ranges there are heights of 4,800 ft.

Khios. See CHIOS.

Khiva. (1.) Ancient Khorasmia; Kharizm or Khwarezm of Moslem writers. Vassal khanate of Russian Central Asia, on the Lower Oxus (Amu Daria), bounded on N.E. and E. by the Oxus, on N.N.W. by Aral Sea, and on other sides by Kara-kum desert. Area, about 22,320 sq. m.; pop. estimated at 800,000. Of these, 400,000 are nomadic Turcomans, the rest (Tajiks, Uzbegs) being concentrated in the fertile oasis of Khiva proper, which is maintained by an extensive system of irrigation. The climate is bright and cloudless. Summer is exceedingly hot; winter is short but severe. Corn, barley, rice, millet, cotton, pease, lentils, tobacco, hemp, poppies, and madder are cultivated, and fruit trees abound. There is a fine breed of horses. The government is still in name a military despotism cf Mohammedan type, but since 1873 the real ruler has been the Russian resident. Khiva formed part of the first and second Persian empires, of the empire of Alexander, and of the caliphate of the 8th and 9th centuries. The Mongols dealt it terrific blows in the 13th century. In 1512 it was secured by the Uzbegs. (2.) Town, cap. of above khanate, 17 m. from the Oxus, and 450 m. w. of Tashkend. Walls encircle both the town and the citadel. Thirty mosques and over twenty madrasas or Moslem colleges are the principal buildings of the outer city, the most remarkable being the mosque built over the tomb of Polvan, patron saint of Khiva. Silks, cottons, and carpets are manufactured. Pop. 5,000. See McGahan's Campaigning on the Oxus and the Fall of Khiva (1874); Rawlinson's England and Russia in the East (1875); Burnaby's Ride to Khiva (1876); Keane's Asia, vol. i.; articles on 'Khiva' in Nouvelle Géographie Universelle (1887), in The International Geography (1899), in The Statesman's Year-Book (1903), and in the Almanach de Gotha (1904).

Khoi, tn., Azerbaijan, Persia, 75 m. w.N.W. of Tabriz, and on the trade route between Tabriz

and Trebizond. It has a strong fortress. Pop. 30,000.

Khoi Khoi. See HOTTENTOT. Khojak Pass, at an alt. of 8,000 ft., leads through the Khoja Amram range, between the British district of Pishin, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, 53 m. N.N.W. of Quetta. It is on the road to Kandahar.

Khojent, tn., Syr Daria prov., Russian Central Asia, 95 m. S.S.E. of Tashkend, on left (s.)

Khulna

bank of Syr Daria. It is surrounded by a double wall, and has an ancient citadel. There are manufactures of coarse cotton goods, and many gardens and orchards in the suburbs. Throughout the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th it was the head of a small independent principality. Pop. (1891) 30,076, largely Tajiks.

Khokand. See FERGANA.

Kholm (Pol. Chelm), tn., Lublin gov., Russian Poland, 20 m. N.E. of Kvasnostav. It has a magnificent cathedral. Pop.

(1897) 19,236.

Khonds, a people of Kolarian stock who inhabit Madras and the east of the Central Provinces of India. They are small in stature and dark in color. Their government is patriarchal. They are quite distinct from the Gonds, with whom, owing to the similarity of name, they have been confused.

Khorassan, N.E. prov. of Persia, bounded on the E. by Afghanistan, and on the N. by Transcaspia. The southern part is sandy desert, but the rest, traversed by spurs of the Elburz Mts., has fertile valleys. The province is some 200,000 sq. m. in area. Turquoises are mined near Nishapur. Wheat, rice, and tobacco are grown; wool, cottons, carpets, and turquoises are exported. The capital is Meshed. Pop. 1,000,000.

Khosru. See CHOSROES.

Khotan, oasis and city of E. Turkestan, 160 m. E.S.E. of Yarkand, on the 1. bk. of the Khotan Daria. Exports jade, silk, musk, cotton, carpets, felt, wool, and furs. Down to 1864 the industry of jade-cutting flourished at Khotan. From very early times the Khotan oasis was one of the chief centres of sericulture. Pop. (1900) 5,000. Under the Han dynasty (the 4th century A.D.), Khotan is said by Chinese annalists to have been a city of 85,000 people, and a great light of the Buddhist world. The oasis has an area of about 400 sq. m., and a population (1900) of 50,000. Cereals, including maize, rice, flax, hemp, tobacco, and cotton, are cultivated. The buried cities of the Khotan district have been discovered by the Swedish traveller Sven Hedin, and visited by Stein, who brought away many inscribed tablets now in the British Museum.

Khotin, or KHOсZIM, tn., Bessarabia gov., S.W. Russia, 10 m. S.S.W. of Kamenets-Podolski, on the s. side of the Dniester, close to the Austro-Russian frontier. Pop. (1897) 18,126.

Khulna, Dist. of Bengal, India, 2,077 sq. m. in area, with a population (1901) of 1,253,043. It manufactures sugar from dates,

Khurja

Khurja, chief tn., Bulandshahr dist., United Provinces, India, 50 m. s.E. of Delhi. It exports raw cotton, and has a new Jain temple. Pop. (1901) 29,277.

Khuzistan, or ARABISTAN (anc. Susiana), prov. of S.W. Persia, between N. end of Persian Gulf and Bakhtiari Mts. It is mostly mountainous, but the soil in the valleys is exceedingly fertile; the southern portion consists of wellwatered plains, the Karun being the principal stream. Rice, maize, barley, dates, cotton, and indigo are produced. Wool is a valuable product. Shuster is the capital. Area, 25,700 sq. m. Pop. 200,000. Khyber Pass. See KHAIBAR PASS.

Kiakhta, tn., gov. Transbaikalia, Siberia, 180 m. S.E. of Irkutsk, situated close to the Chinese commercial settlement of Maimachin. A very important trading centre, especially for tea, the value of which amounts to over $10,000,000 annually. Part of the land trade in tea has, however, been lessened by the competition of the Suez Canal. Pop. 5,000.

Kiang. See KULAN.

Klang. See Ass; KULAN. Kiang-si, prov., Central China, with an area of 72,176 sq. m. It contains the basin of the Kan and other rivers draining into the Poyang Lake, which itself has an area of 1,200 sq. m. Many of the rivers of the province are navigable for great distances. There is only a short portage from the head of the Kan R., by the Meiling Pass, to the Canton waters. Rice, wheat, silk, cctton, tea, and sugar are produced in the valleys; porcelain is manufactured in large quantities at King-te-chen; and there is much valuable timber in the mountains which encircle the province. Nan-chang-fu is the capital. The head of the Taoist priesthood has always resided in this province. His present home is in the Lunghu-shan (Dragon-tiger Mt.). Pop. (1901) 26,532,000.

Kiang-su, maritime prov., China. Area, about 45,000 sq. m. It lies between lat. 31°-35° N. and long. 116-122° E., is traversed by the Yang-tse-kiang, and intersected in every direction by canals, including the best portion of the Grand Canal. There are many large lakes, natural and artificial. Though desolated by the Taiping rebellion, it is now one of the richest provinces of China. The soil is alluvial, and produces large quantities of rice and wheat, beans, cotton, silk, and peaches. Nanking, its capital, is the residence of the viceroy of Kiang-su and Kiang-si. Shanghai is in this province. Pop. (1901) 23,980,000.

Kiang-yin. See CHIANG-YIN.

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Kiao-chau, or CHIAO-CHOU, tn., Shan-tung, China. In January, 1898, the bay and surrounding coast were leased for ninetynine years to Germany. Modern improvements have been made in the town. The bay is about 15 m. long, and 15 m. wide, and contains several small islands. The territory, about 200 sq. m. in area, was declared a German protectorate in April, 1898. Pop. about 70,000. The port is free.

Kia-ting-fu. See CHIA

TING-FU.

Kicking Horse Pass, in the Rocky Mts., on the E. boundary of British Columbia, Canada; has an alt. of 5,296 ft., and is crossed by the Can. Pac. Ry. At this point the scenery is of surpassing grandeur and impressiveness. In the vicinity are Mt. Field, Mt. Stephen, and Cathedral Mt. One of the most strikingly beautiful mountain valleys stretches to the

N.

On the side of Mt. Stephen there is a glacier 800 ft. thick, slowly pressing forward and over a high perpendicular cliff.

Kidd, BENJAMIN (1858), English sociologist, who won distinction by his first work, a brilliant essay on Social Evolution (1894). This was followed by The Control of the Tropics (1898), Principles of Western Civilization (1902), "The Application of the Doctrine of Evolution to Sociological Theory' (Ency. Brit. v. xxix. 1902), and other papers developing further his system of social philosophy. Kidd held that society should be interpreted in terms of biology, but qualified the logical outcome of his argument by admitting the influence of religion in furnishing the basis of individual self-sacrifice for the public good.

a

Kidd, WILLIAM (c. 1650-1701), British navigator, afterward notorious pirate, was born probably in Greenock, Scotland, the son of a non-conformist clergyman. He went to sea in his youth, and in the war between England and France served the colonies so well that the New York city council awarded him £150 (1691). At the suggestion of Richard Coote (the Earl of Bellomont), governor of N. Y. and Mass., he was given command of a 287 ton galley armed with 30 guns and built by a private company, and instructed to hunt down the pirates who were especially active in the Indian ocean, and who were believed to be Americans. The ship, named the Adventure, was equipped in London, and Kidd took command, bearing the usual letters of marque and a commission to act against the French, as well as to capture pirates. He sailed from Plymouth (April 23, 1696) and came to N. Y. city,

Kidderminster

where he completed his crew of 154 men. During the following year while he was cruising off the coast of Madagascar, it became rumored that the pirate hunter had himself turned a pirate, and instructions were issued to colonial governors to arrest him on sight. In 1699 he appeared in the West Indies, sailed up the Atlantic coast, stopped at Oyster Bay, L. I., to take on a New York lawyer, James Emott, and sent him to consult with the governor of Mass. On July 1, 1699, Kidd himself reached Boston and delivered to the authorities a large quantity of goods he had captured. But he was arrested with several of his men, and sent to England where he was tried on charges of piracy, arson, and brutality of prisoners, and more explicitly on the charge of having murdered one of his men, William Moore, whom Kidd protested was a mutineer. On this charge he was convicted after a trial which many believe was far from fair, and was hanged with nine of his men, at London, May 24, 1701. Kidd had buried some of his booty on Gardiner's Island, and this was recovered (1699). There have been many fruitless attempts since to find his 'hidden treasure' at various spots along the Atlantic coast, and even on islands and along the banks of the Hudson river.

Kidder, FREDERIC (1804-85), American author, was born at New Ipswich, N. H., and after a varied business experience in Boston, New York, and the South, settled in Melrose, Mass., 1869, where he helped to establish a public library. He was a member of the New England HistoricGenealogical society and contributed extensively to its publications, becoming an authority on matters connected with the history of the language and religion of the New England Indians. Among his historical brochures are The Expeditions of Capt. John Lovewell (1865) and History of the Boston Massacre, 5 March, 1770 (1870).

Kidderminster, munic. and parl. bor. in Worcestershire, England, 15 m. N. of Worcester, near the confluence of the Stour with the Severn. There are schools of science and art (about 600 pupils). Brinton Park is a recreation ground, and there is a statue of Rowland Hill, born here 1795. The manufacture of carpets, introduced about 1735 is still the staple industry; the principal kinds now made are Brussels and Wilton, and to a less extent royal Axminster. Worsted spinning and dyeing are also carried on, and in the vicinity are iron and tin-plate works. There is an

Kidnapping

American consular agent. Pop. (1901) 24,681.

Kidnapping. The common law offense of wrongfully carrying off and detaining any person from those entitled to his society or custody. The offense is a felony, punishable by imprisonment for periods varying according to the jurisdiction and the circumstances of the crime from 10 to 25 years. See ABDUCTION.

Kidneys are excretory organs whose function is to get rid of nitrogenous waste. Among invertebrates, the commonest form of excretory organ is a small coiled tube, communicating, primitively a least, with the body cavity internally, and also with the exterior. In an annelide.g. the earthworm-we get a series of such tubes, each with its own internal and external apertures. Such tubes are known as nephridia. They were probably originally simple drainage tubes, conveying products direct from the cœlum to the exterior; but in most instances they are supplied by numerous blood-vessels, and it is from these that the waste products are obtained by the cells of the nephridia. In consequence, a tendency toward's the reduction or disappearance of the internal opening manifests itself as we ascend in the scale, and the blood-supply becomes cfficient. Again, while primitively each tubule opens independently to the exterior, an obviously advantageous specialization, where the tubules are numerous, is that all should have one

common

opening. With regard to the vertebrate kidney, it may be sufficient to say that it consists of a compact mass of small tubules, which have lost their primitive internal openings, and open externally into a common duct (the ureter), which conveys their products to the exterior, in many cases through a urinary bladder, in which the fluid products can be temporarily stored. In order that they may adequately fulfil their function, the tubules are abundantly supplied with bloodvessels. But in the higher vertebrates, reptiles, birds, and mammals, the tubules are much more complex in structure than in lower forms; and development shows that they are not homologous with those constituting the kidney in lower forms. On the other hand, the embryo bird, reptile, and mammal have tubules similar in structure to those which occur in the lower vertebrates.

In man, the kidneys are two excretory organs situated in the back part of the abdomen, one on each side of the lumbar portion of the spinal column. Each is somewhat bean-shaped, presenting its concave border to

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wards the spine. The peritoneum covers their anterior aspect. Each is about four inches long, two inches broad, and one inch thick, the left being slightly the larger. In the central part of the concave border is a notch known as the hilum, through which enter the blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and' from which arises the ureter or excretory duct. Over the upper end of each kidney is situated a small ductless gland, the supra-renal capsule. The function of the supra-renal bodies is imperfectly known, but their destruction by

Section of Human Kidney.

A, Cortical substance; B B, pyramids; c, hilum; D, pelvis; E, ureter; F, suprarenal capsule.

disease is followed by grave and generally fatal constitutional symptoms. (See ADDISON'S DISEASE.) The function of the kidneys is the secretion of urine, which consists of water containing urea and the various other waste products that result from body metabolism, and are carried to the kidney by the blood in the renal arteries. The kidney cells have the power of picking up urea and other poisons from the blood and of passing them into the kidney pelvis, the purified blood being returned to the circulation by the renal veins. The average amount of urine secreted in twenty-four hours is fifty ounces, containing about 500 grains of urea and a similar quantity of other solids. When the fluids of the body are diminished by free perspiration or by diarrhoea, the urine is also diminished in quantity, but may be concentrated and high-colored from the relatively high proportion of solids. The other solids consist chiefly of phosphates, urates, chlorides, sulphates, oxalates, and uric acid, with traces of more complex substances.

Kidneys

Disease-Malformations of the kidney are occasionally found, the two kidneys being sometimes fused into one horseshoe-shaped organ. Such conditions do not, as a rule, call for treatment. Movable or floating kidney gives rise, in many cases, to discomfort and pain, fermentative indigestion and general malaise. Generally a pad can be adjusted which relieves the symptoms, but occasionally it is necessary to stitch the organ in its place. Sarcomatous or cancerous new growths in the kidney are of extreme gravity. They generally produce hæmaturia-i.e. blood in the urine, and rapid emaciation. Pain is not invariably present; but should clots of blood be impacted in the ureter, severe renal colic ensues. Medicinal treatment is of no avail, and operative interference is advisable only when the tumor is small and primary, and when the patient is still in fairly robust health. The commonest disease of the kidney is nephritis or Bright's Disease. The acute form is most frequently caused by toxæmia following exposure to cold, or intemperance. Certain fevers, particularly scarlatina, lead to the condition. Pregnancy seems to favor the occurrence of nephritis, and the onset of kidney disease during gestation is sometimes disastrous. (See NEPHRITIS.) Renal colic is generally caused by a calculus or deposit of some of the solid constituents of the urine. Calculi most frequently result from the deposit of uric acid or of calcium oxalate; but blood clots and the ova of parasites, as well as other substances, often form the nuclei of stones. In the form of sand these concretions may give rise to little or no discomfort; but when the calculus approaches the size of a pea, it may become impacted in the ureter, and as it is forced through the narrow tubular portion by the accumulation of urine behind, it leads to agonizing pain, often accompanied by vomiting and collapse. The irritation caused by calculi lying in the pelvis of the kidney occasionally feads to a somewhat similar condition known as pyonephrosis, in which the collection of fluid is pus. The purulent infection may not be confined to the pelvis of the kidney, but may spread to the substance of the gland and produce pyelonephritis. Other

causes than calculi may bring about such a result, of which cystitis, or inflammation of the bladder, is the commonest. Tubercle and some infective fevers are also responsible for producing suppuration of the kidney; and similar causes sometimes lead to the development of a perine

Kidney Vetch

phritic abscess-i.e. an accumulation of pus around the kidney, which, however, may be caused by direct injury, by spinal caries, or by perforation of the bowel. In the treatment of renal colic it is generally necessary to keep the patient well under the influence of morphine while the paroxysm lasts. Relief is also got from hot fomentations, and an attempt should be made to soften or break up the concretion by keeping the urine abundant, and in most cases alkaline. Hyoscyamus has a soothing effect upon the pain, and piperazine has been much advocated as a solvent of uric acid calculi. In purulent affections of the kidney surgical aid should be given early. Diabetes, although producing great changes in the chemical constitution and in the quantity of the urine, is not due to disease of the kidneys.

Kidney Vetch, or LADY'S FINGER, a name given to plants belonging to the genus Anthyllis, of the order Leguminosæ. A.

Kidney Vetch.

1, Flower.

vulneraria, is the common European kidney vetch, is a well-known British herbaceous plant, having glaucous pinnate leaves with a terminal leaflet, and in summer crowded heads of yellow flowers with swollen calyces.

Kidron, or CEDRON (mod. Wady en Nêr), brook, Palestine, flows through the valley of Jehoshaphat, then E. between Jerusalem and Mount of Olives to the Dead Sea. Except in winter it is dry.

Kleff. See KIEV.

Kieft, WILLEM (?-1647), Dutch merchant who was direc

106

tor-general of New Netherland from 1638 to 1647. This period was marked by à disastrous Indian war (1643-5), growing out of Kieft's attempt to tax the Indians along the Hudson, and of the unprovoked massacre (1643), sanctioned by Kieft, of 110 peaceful river Indians who had come to the Dutch for protection against the Iroquois; and by the beginnings of a movement to establish a representative system in New Netherland, two representative bodies, the Twelve Men and the Eight Men being chosen by the commonalty, 1641 and 1643 respectively, to advise and cooperate with the director. Kieft was autocratic and domineering, was engaged in various quarrels, and was very unpopular. Hé died in a shipwreck while returning to the Netherlands.

Kiekie, a New Zealand shrub, Freycinetia Banksii, belonging to the order Pandanacea. It climbs to a considerable height, and bears a large quantity of berries crowded on a spadix. The young spadices are made into a jelly, which has a strawberry-like flavor.

Kiel, seapt., Prussia,, prov. Schleswig-Holstein, on a bay of the Baltic, near the Baltic end of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, 70 m. by rail N. of Hamburg. It is the chief naval station of the German empire. The old town has narrow, crooked streets. The Thaulow Museum, the former castle of the dukes of HolsteinGottorp, the provincial museum of antiquities, the university (1,200 students in 1905), the naval academy, and the naval school are the principal institutions. Kiel is a centre of trade with Denmark and Scandinavia. Its industries include shipbuilding, flour, oil, and saw mills, engineering works, and breweries. The harbor is strongly fortified. The treaty of Kiel was signed here in 1814. Pop. in 1906, since the addition of several suburbs, over 150,000.

Kielce. (1.) Province of Russian Poland. Area, 3,897 sq. m. The Vistula separates it from Austrian territory on the s. and S.E. The chief minerals are iron, lead, and copper; zinc, coal, calamine, marble, gypsum, clay, and sulphur are also found. The black earth soil extends over part of the province. Potatoes are an extremely important crop. The chief industries are potteries, tanneries, tile works, sawmills, flour mills, manufactories of mea objects. Pop. (1897) 763,746. (2.) Town, cap. of above gov., 105 m. s. of Warsaw. Chief industries: iron and sugar factories, ropemaking, dyeing, brick-making, cement manufacture, distilling. Pop. (1897) 23,189.

Kielland, ALEXANDER LANGE

Kierkegaard

(1849-1906), Norwegian author, born at Stavanger. One of the leading Norwegian novelists, he wielded a sharp, sarcastic pen, steeped in pessimistic realism; his condensed, epigrammatic style is not unlike that of Maupassant. He first made his reputation with the nautical novel, Garman og Worse (1880), which was followed in rapid succession by the novels Arbeidsfolk (1881); Else (1881); Skipper Worse (1882); Gift (1883); Fortuna (1884); Sne (1886), with some fine descriptions of winter scenery; Bettys Formynder (1887), a satirical play; Sankt Hans Fest (1887); Professoren (1888), a play; and Jacob (1891).

Kiepert, JOHANN SAMUEL HEINRICH (1818-99), German cartographer, was born in Berlin. From 1845 to 1852 he was director of the Weimar Geographical Institute; was appointed extraordinary professor of historical geography at the Berlin University in 1859, and director of the topographical department of the Statistical Bureau in 1864. Ancient geography was his favorite study. Among his works are a historical Atlas von Hellas (1841-6), Karten von Kleinasien (1843-5), Hand-Atlas (1854), Atlas Antiquus (1855), and a great map of Asia Minor (unfinished). He was also author of a Lehrbuch (1879) and Leitfaden_der Alten Geographie (1879; Eng. trans. 1881).

Kierkegaard, SÖREN AABYE (1813-55), the greatest of Danish thinkers, was born at Copenhagen. His literary activity is divisible into two periods. In the first (1843-6) he was principally concerned with the nature of religion and man's relation to it; and in the second (1849-55) he waged war upon religion as exemplified in the national Danish Church. His most important books of the earlier period are entitled Enten-Eller (i.e. EitherOr, 1843) and Stadier paa Livets Vei (i.e. 'Stages of Life, 1845). In these and in other works he discusses, with singular dialectical skill, great charm, and mastery of language, profound depth and subtlety of thought, and with strong interplay of irony and paradox, the 'real values' of the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious conceptions of life. These two books were supplemented and completed by the Frygt og Bæven (1843), Gjentagelsen (1843), Begrebet Angest (1844), Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift (1846), Indövelse i Christendom (1850). An edition of his Collected Works was begun at Copenhagen in 1901. See Höffding's Sören Kierkegaard som Filosof (1892); (German trans. 1902); Bärthold's various books (1875-86); Georg Brandes's S. Kierkegaard (1879);