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Josephine-Peary

1809, to enable him to marry Marie Louise of Austria. Joséphine died at Malmaison. See Aubenas's Histoire de l'Impératrice Joséphine (1859); Marie le Normand's The Historical and Secret Memoirs of the Empress Joséphine (Eng. trans. 1895).

Josephine-Peary, isl., in Inglefield Gulf, N.W. of Greenland.

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Josephus, FLAVIUS (37-c. 100 A.D.), Jewish historian, was man of high birth, and was sent on a mission to Rome in 63 A.D. When the Roman governor left Jerusalem, he accepted the management of affairs in Galilee, and defended Jotapata for fortyseven days against Vespasian. Titus interceded for him, and his life was spared; but he was not released from custody until Vespasian was declared emperor in 70 A.D. Thenceforward he attached himself to the imperial family, taking the name Flavius out of respect to them, and living in Rome to the end of his life. His chief works (both written in Greek) are The History of the Jewish War, which gives a brief sketch of Jewish affairs from 170 B.C. to his own day, and a full account of the conquest of Jerusalem; and The Jewish Antiquities, narrating the history of the Jews from the creation to 66 A.D. the latter part treats more fully what is outlined in the other work. Josephus possesses a clear and pure style, and his descriptions are vivid. His attitude to Christianity has been much discussed. In one passage, which by many critics is considered spurious, he speaks of Jesus as the 'true Christ,' and as more than man;' but it seems clear he was not a Christian. More probably he was a Pharisee, in whom Greek learning and philosophy had inspired a certain indifference to dogma, and a general toleration of all creeds. The best editions are those of Niese (1887-95) and Naber (1888-96). Eng. trans. by Shilleto (1889). See Drüner's Untersuchungen über Josephus (1897).

Joshua (Jesus,' Acts 7:45), the son of Nun, according to the book called by his name (see next article), succeeded Moses as the leader of the Israelites, and completed the invasion of Canaan. After crossing the Jordan from the east he reduced Jericho and (after a reverse) Ai, defeated a large number of native kings, and occupied their territory, afterwards subdividing the land among the tribes of Israel. This is not in accord with Judges 1-2, which represents the conquest as carried through by different aggregations. Joshua is said to have died at Mt. Ephraim at the age of one hundred and ten.

Joshua, THE BOOK OF, de

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scribing the Israelite conquest of Canaan, is now regarded as the necessary supplement to the Pentateuch, and in critical works the six books are conjoined under the name of Hexateuch (q.v.). The book was traditionally believed to have been written by Joshua himself, though Calvin abandoned the view. As a matter of fact, the same phenomena of composition as are noticed in Genesis reappear in Joshua, and the same writers (or schools) viz. J, E, D, P, to whom the various strata of the Pentateuch attributed-are found here. The whole has been edited under Deuteronomic influence at a relatively late date. Questions have been raised as to the reliability of the narrative, and as to whether Joshua himself is a person or personification. See JOSHUA, Ó.T. introductions, and especially volumes on the Hexateuch, as Wellhausen (1889), Holzinger (1893), Battersby-Carpenter (1900), Briggs's Higher Criticism of Hexateuch (1897), Addis's Documents of the Hexateuch (1892); commentaries by Keil (1847), Knobel (1861), Dillmann (1886), Holzinger (1901).

Josiah, king of Judah (c. 639608 B.C.), the son and successor of Amon, ascended the throne at the age of eight. The Scythian invasion in 630 was interpreted as a divine judgment upon the idolatry of the nation, and shortly thereafter Josiah, assuming the regal authority, began his campaign of reform. While the temple was being renovated by public subscriptions, the book of the law (Deuteronomy) was discovered by the high priest Hilkiah, and this gave a startling impetus to the progress of the reforming movement. Idolatry was suppressed by drastic measures, the local sanctuaries were abolished, and the worship was centralized at Jerusalem. A period of peace and prosperity followed, which was broken when Josiah attacked Pharaoh-nechoh (while on a campaign against Assyria) at Megiddo, where he was defeated and slain. (See 2 Kings 22, 23 and histories of Israel.)

Jósika, BARON MIKLÓS (17961865), Hungarian novelist, was born at Torda in Transylvania, and wrote a series of romances historical and social, based on the model set by Sir Walter Scott. They are serious in intention, though enlivened with occasional touches of humor, and aim at a high moral standard. They achieved great popularity. Chief amongst them are Abafi (1836), The Bohemians in Hungary, The Last of the Báthoris (1847). His complete works run to nearly a hundred volumes.

Josquin, DEPRÉS (1440-1521),

Joubert

Flemish musical composer, born at Vermaud, St. Quentin. At the invitation of Pope Sixtus IV. he went to Rome, where he remained until the Pope's death (1484). He gave a great impetus to music in Italy. Subsequently he became leading singer in the chapel of Louis XII. of France. A selection of his works was published by Commer (1877).

Jost, ISAAK MARKUS (17931860), Jewish historian, born at Bernburg in Anhalt, and taught in the Jewish school at Frankfort. He is chiefly remembered for his Geschichte der Israeliten (1820-29), which he continued in Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815-45 (1846-7). He also published Allgemeine Geschichte des israelitischen Volkes (1831-2); and edited the Israelitische Annalen (1839-41). See Zirndorf's Isaak Markus Jost (1886).

Jostedalsbrä. See NORWAY.

Jotun, a legendary being of N. European folklore. In the translations of the Scandinavian Eddas, where the jotuns figure prominently, their name is usually rendered by 'giant.' According to one view, they are purely mythical creations-nature-gods. Others, again, regard them as a real race, their original characteristics being magnified and distorted by popular fancy. One passage (Saem., 55a) describes the jotun as a pithecoid creature.

Jotunfjelde. See NORWAY.

Joubert, JOSEPH (1754-1824), French moralist and critic, a native of Montignac (Périgord), became a member of the brilliant literary circles of Paris just before the revolution. After his death Chateaubriand edited selection of his Pensées, and a fuller edition was published in 1842 by Paul de Raynal. This was followed by the improved editions of Arnaud Joubert (1850) and Louis de Raynal (1862).

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Joubert, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834-1900), Boer commandant, was born at Cango in Cape Colony; migrated when young to Natal, later to the Transvaal. He represented Wakkerstroom in the Volksraad from 1863 to 1875, when he was elected chairman of the Assembly. He was for a time attorney-general of the republic (1874). He worked with Kruger against the annexation of the Transvaal by Sir T. Shepstone in 1877. When the flag of independence was raised in December 1880, he was appointed one of the triumvirate to whom the government of the country was entrusted. As commandant-general of the Boer forces he defeated the British at Majuba Hill on Feb. 28, 1881. Joubert twice unsuccessfully sought the presidency in opposi tion to Kruger-in 1893 and

Jouett

in 1898. On the outbreak of the Boer war (1899-1902) Joubert was again commandant-general, and invested Ladysmith; but illhealth compelled him to return to Pretoria, where he died.

Jouett, MATTHEW HARRIS (1788-1827), American artist, the son of a Revolutionary patriot, was born in Mercer co., Ky. He studied law, but found that his interest lay in the direction of art work. After service in the war of 1812, he devoted himself to the study of portrait and miniature painting taking a brief course under Gilbert Stuart. He lived at Lexington, Ky., where and in other parts of the South he painted many portraits of which the best known is that of Lafayette, ordered by the Kentucky legislature.

Jouffroy, THÉODORE - SIMON (1796-1842), French philosopher, born at Pontets (Jura); became (1833) professor of Greek and Roman philosophy at the Collège de France. His varied studies were gradually concentrated upon the philosophy of the Scottish school, and in 1836 he published a translation of Reid's works, with a biographical account of the Scottish philosopher. He also published Mélanges Philosophiques (1833; new ed. 1883), Cours de Drow Naturel (183342), and Cours d'Esthétique (1843). See Life in French by Tissot (1876).

Jouffroy d'Abbans, CLAUDE FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (17511832), French inventor, was born at Roche-sur-Rognon, dep. HauteMarne. In 1776 he launched upon the Doubs a boat the motive power of which was supplied by steam, and in 1783 produced a vessel propelled by paddles, but was unable to float his invention before Fulton produced his steam boat in 1803. See monograph by A. C. J. Prost (1889).

Jougs, jointed collars of iron, by which misdemeanants in Scotland and elsewhere were held captive. The culprit's neck being encircled by the jougs, the two free ends of the iron band were slipped over each other and secured by a padlock. On the opposite side was a movable iron ring fastened into the collar by a small fixed ring, and by this ring the jougs were attached to a stone projecting from a conspicuous part of the churchyard wall.

Joule is the practical electric unit of work; it equals 107 C.G.S. electro-magnetic units of work or ergs, and represents the work done or heat generated by a watt per second, or an ampère flowing through an ohm in a second, or a coulomb passing through the P.D. of one volt. Taking Joule's equivalent (see THERMODYNAMICS) as

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41.6 x 106 in the C.G.S. system, then the Joule being 107 ergs is the amount of heat required to raise .24 gram water 1° C. See ELECTRICITY, CURRENT.

Joule, JAMES PRESCOTT (181889), English physicist, was born at Salford, and became a pupil of Dalton. His first work was on magnetism, particularly as to the magnetizability of iron by electric currents-a research which led to a definition of a practical unit of current, and to his discovery that the quantity of heat set free by the passage of a current through a conductor is proportional to the square of the current. These investigations in their turn paved the way for Joule's great discovery in 1843 of the mechanical equivalent of heat, careful determinations of which, by various methods, occupied his attention during the greater part of the rest of his life. Joule was awarded the Royal (1852) and Copley (1860) medals of the Royal Society. His Scientific Papers were collected and published (1885-7).

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Jourdan, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833), French military commander, born at Limoges. After service in America (under Count d'Estaing), he was placed at the head of the army of the north, and inflicted upon the Austrians a signal defeat Wattignies (1793). In another command he drove them across the Rhine (1794), and besieged Kastel and Mainz (1795). Crossing the Rhine again in 1796, he was defeated at Amberg and Würzburg. Once more in the field in 1799, he suffered further defeats, owing to his army being immensely outnumbered by that of Austria. He defended himself in the Précis des Opérations de l'Armée du Danube sous les Ordres du Général Jourdan (1799). Napoleon entrusted him with the direction of affairs in Piedmont (1800). He was created a marshal in 1804, and in 1806 was appointed governor of Naples.

Journal, the cylindrical supporting parts of a horizontal revolving shaft, frequently made of length about one and a half diameters. In lines of shafting it is often made of length about four diameters. To minimize frictional losses, the journal is made as narrow as is consistent with strength. The journal box is a fixture on which a journal rests and revolves.

Journal des Débats, LE, a French journal of moderate republican opinions, was founded in 1789 to report the proceedings of the National Convention. It was acquired in 1800 by Louis François Bertin, and conducted by him till his death, in 1841, when the direction passed to his sons,

Journalism

Amiard and Edouard Bertin. The Débats is one of the most authoritative of the French newspapers.

Journal de St. Pétersbourg, LE, is the official organ of the Russian foreign minister. It is a daily paper, and is printed in the French language. It was founded in (1825).

Journalism. Definitions of modern journalism agree in describing it as the business of gathering and publishing current news for periodicals; or, more narrowly, and in deference to the later phases of its development, in limiting that business to the requirements of a daily newspaper. There is room for differences of opinion in regard to unessential features. In the United States journalism has progressed along lines freer from interference than in European countries. In colonial days there were a few suppressions of newspapers by arbitrary governors, and after the organization of the Federal Government, the Alien and Sedition Acts (q.v.), passed during the administration of President John Adams, and designed to meet virulent political opposition, imposed certain restrictions on the public press. But these interruptions for they could be called nothing more serious-were only temporary. Both before and after the Revolution, popular sentiment was so overwhelmingly opposed to any tampering with the free printed utterances of the people that no attempt in that direction was tolerated. The jury in Zenger's case (q.v.), in acquitting the defendant, expressed a deep-rooted popular conviction, and President Adams's vigorous measures, though operative 1798-1801, only during aroused a fierce opposition that went far to overthrow the Feder

alist party. Henceforth American journalism, free from any trammels beyond libel laws which have generally been construed on the side of liberty of opinion, developed under all the favorable conditions that immense natural resources, an expanding population, and a liberal support of public schools could supply. Before the building of railways and the perfecting of the power press, its influence was necessarily local and provincial, though the position of an editor was more powerful than at present. Journals of that time were influential through the personality of the editor, who was expected and believed to be a man of superior intellect, with the qualifications of a political leader. Commercialism had not yet absorbed the guiding power of the editorial page. During the moral agitation that resulted in the civil war, the editorial office was most com

Joust

manding. Men like Horace Greeley, Thurlow Weed, and Henry J. Raymond belonged to an order that existing conditions have made almost impossible. Since about 1875, the unprecedented increase of the means of communication, by railway, telegraph and telephone has largely effaced the old local powercentres of journalism; while the business side of the profession, rigorously organized to compete for advertising, add to the subscribers' list, and sell to the general public, has less regard to ideal claims made in behalf of the press as a director of the public conscience. Some journals struggle against this commercializing tendency, while few will openly admit that they are carried along with it; but the general fact is indisputable. It is none the less true that public opinion in this country is more independent and discriminating than during the first half of the nineteenth century, more likely to resist any perverting leadership; and doubtless that result is itself due, in large measure, to the educative power of journalism. In the more advanced European countries influences similar to those already noticed have long been at work, and with similar results. See NEWSPAPER.

Joust. See TOURNAMENT.

Joutel, HENRI (c. 1650--?), a French explorer in America, born at Rouen, France. He was a friend and fellow-townsman of the explorer La Salle, whom he accompanied on the expedition of 1685-7, which resulted in the establishment of a temporary colony in Texas and finally in La Salle's assassination. During this period Joutel was La Salle's most trusted lieutenant; he commanded the fort on Matagorda Bay during La Salle's absences in search of the Mississippi River, and accompanied his leader on his last trip (1686-7). After La Salle's assassination, Joutel's life was also threatened; but he finally (in July, 1687), after what Parkman calls 'one of the most adventurous journeys on record,' reached Montreal by way of the Arkansas, the Mississippi and the Illinois. He immediately turned to France and was seen at Rouen thirty-five years later by Charlevoix. His Journal historique du dernier voyage que feu La Salle fit dans le Golfe de Mexique (1713), an abstract of his narrative which was published in full by Margry in his Découvertes et Établissements des Français (1879), and republished in English by the Caxton Club of Chicago, is the best contemporary narrative of La Salle's last voyage. Jove. See JUPITER. Jovellanos, GASPAR MELCHOR

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DE (1744-1811), Spanish author and statesman, born at Gijon; was for a time resident in England, and a friend of Lord Holland. He was a lawyer, minister of justice (1797), and a very prolific writer of political and economic works, greatly esteemed both for style and matter, and also of verse and poetic dramas. El Delincuente Honrado and El Pelayo are his principal plays, and Mejico Conquistada his best-known epic. He translated Young's Night Thoughts and the first canto of Paradise Lost. All his works are published in Rivadaneyra's collection (vols. xlvi. and 1.).

Jovian, whose full name was FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JOVIANUS, was emperor of Rome from June, 363, to February, 364 A.D. He was born in 331, and was captain of Julian's life guards on the latter's expedition against the Persians, being elected emperor by the army after Julian's death in battle. He began to retreat, and was forced to purchase peace by surrendering five provinces. When he reached Mesopotamia he promulgated the famous edict which placed the Christian religion on a legal basis, thus putting an end to Julian's persecution.

Jowett, BENJAMIN (1817-93), tutor and master of Balliol College, Oxford (1870), exercised a great influence over the intellectual life of Oxford. He belonged to the Broad Church school, and was a contributor to Essays and Reviews (1860). He was appointed regius professor of Greek in 1855. In addition to his translation of the Dialogues of Plato (4 vols. 1871), he wrote a Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Romans (2 vols. 1855); College Sermons (1895); and translations of Thucydides (2 vols. 1881) and of The Politics of Aristotle (1885). See E. Abbott and L. Campbell's Life and Letters (1897-9), and Lionel Tollemache's B. Jowett (1895).

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Joy, CHARLES ARAD (1823-91), American chemist, was born at Ludlowville, Tompkins co., N. Y., and graduated (1844) at Union College. He studied for the law, but did not practice, taking up chemistry instead, at the universities of Berlin, Göttingen, and Paris. He was professor chemistry at Union College for several years until his appointment (1857) to the same position at Columbia. He retired, 1877, owing to a sunstroke received at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, where and at several other world's fairs he was a member of the juries. The latter part of his life was passed in Germany. He contributed many analyses of minerals to Prof. Dana's Mineralogy and was an editor of and frequent

Juarez

contributor to several popular scientific journals.

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Joyce, ROBERT DWYER (183683). Irish-American poet, born in co. Limerick, Ireland, and graduated in medicine at Queen's College, Dublin. He practised as a physician in Dublin, at the same time giving instruction in English literature at the Roman Catholic preparatory school in that city. Dr. Joyce came to the U. S. in 1866, and afterward lived at Boston, where he became well known as a contributor to the Pilot and other Irish-American papers. Some of his books are Ballads, Romances, and Songs (1872), Deirdre (1876), Blanid (1879), besides several volumes in

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Juan Manuel (1282-1347), grandson of Ferdinand III. Castile, was one of the regents in the minority of Alfonso XI. (1312), and a moving spirit in the civil wars that ensued. He wrote chronicles and treatises, and, best known of all, Libro de los Estados (a didactic political narrative). But his masterpiece is Count Lucanor (Eng. trans. 1888), a collection of amusing moral tales or apologies, resembling the Arabian Nights. See Obras in Rivadaneyra's collection, vol. ii., ed. by Gayangos.

Juarez, BENITO PABLO (180672), president of Mexico, born of Indian parentage, at Guelatao, in the state of Oajaca, of which he was governor (1847-52). Forced in 1853 to leave Mexico during Santa Anna's ascendency, he returned in 1855 to join Alvarez, became minister of justice (1855), and secretary of the interior and chief-justice (1857), and finally was elected president in 1858. He had to struggle, however, against Miramon, who was recognized as the chief executive by the reactionary party. At last, Dec.. 1860, Miramon was utterly defeated in battle. In the civil war the treasury was exhausted and Juarez's suspension of payment of public debts caused the intervention of France, England, and Spain. A Spanish expedition invaded Mexico in 1861. England and Spain soon withdrew, however, but France engaged in a

Juarez-Celman

regular war, the object of which was finally the seating of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria upon the throne of Mexico, converted into an empire. After the entry of the French into the city of Mexico (1863) Juarez retreated to the northern provinces and continued the struggle. At the beginning of 1867 the French forces were withdrawn from Mexico. Maximilian was besieged by the followers of Juarez in Querétaro, and in June he was taken prisoner and shot. Juarez retained the presidency until his death. He was a man of few words and of honest purposes. See Bancroft's History of the Pacific States (Mexico).

Juarez Celman, MIGUEL (1844-), South American politician, was born in Cordova, Argentina, and graduated in law (1870) at the Cordova University. As a member of the Liberal party he was elected to the legislature of his province, of which he became governor (1880). He served in the national senate, and was elected president of the republic, 1886. His administration was marked by wild speculation and dishonesty on the part of those in charge of public funds, and he was obliged to resign in 1890.

Juba, riv., forming from about 6 N. lat. to its mouth the boundary between British and Italian E. África. It rises about 7° N. lat., and flows E. and S.E., then S., and empties at 0° 14' s. into the Indian Ocean. It is navigable for 140 m. above its mouth, at which is a bar. The Yanana, the Web, and the Daua flow into the Juba.

Juba. (1.) King of Numidia from about 61 to 46 B.C. In the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey he took the latter's side, and after the battle of Thapsus, which Cæsar won, committed suicide. (2.) Son of the above (d. c. 19 A.D.). Cæsar took him to Rome as a child. There he gained the favor of Augustus, who in 30 B.C. restored him to his father's throne. In 25 B.C. Numidia was made a Roman province; and Augustus gave Juba the kingdom of Mauritania in exchange for it. He wrote histories of Africa, of Assyria, of Arabia, of Rome, of the theatre, of painting, and also works on botany and grammar, all lost.

Jubal, the son of Lamech and Adah, was, according to Gen. 4: 21, the inventor of musical instruments. His name is doubtless connected with yobel, a 'ram's horn.' See JUBILEE.

Jubaland, prov. of British E. Africa, between Tanaland and Juba R. The N. and w. boundaries are still undefined. Exports include shee, gums, senna, ebony, manilla fibre, and ostrich feathers.

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Jubbulpore. See JABALPUR.

Jubilatë, the 100th Psalm, which begins with that word in the Vulgate version. It is used as an alternative canticle for the Bénedictus at morning service.

Jubilee, the fiftieth anniversary of any important public event, or the fiftieth year of any important institution. The sixtieth anniversary is termed the 'diamond jubilee.' The word comes from the Hebrew Year of Jubilee,' which is described in the Holiness Code (Lev. 25, 8-55). As here instituted it recurred at intervals of seven sabbatical years (i.e. 7x7 years), was ushered in by the blowing of the yobel, 'ram's horn,' and was celebrated with universal rejoicing. Agriculture was brought to a standstill, mortgaged property was restored to its hereditary owners, and slaves of Jewish birth were liberated. There is no evidence that such an institution was ever observed, and some of its provisions seem impracticable. The narrative is probably an elaboration of the law of the Sabbath (cf. the Sabbatical year, Lev. 25, 1-7). In the Roman Catholic Church a jubilee feast was instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300, and was intended to recur with every new century thereafter; but the interval was successively reduced by later popes to fifty, thirty-three, and twenty-five years. For the Year of Jubilee see the commentaries on Levitical and the Hebrew archæologies; for the pope's jubilee, Lea's History of Auricular Confession, iii. (1896); Waal's Das heilige Jahr in Rom (1900).

Jubilees, THE BOOK OF, one of the Old Testament Apocrypha, called also the Little Genesis. The former name is due to the fact that the book divides the whole stretch of time between the creation and the arrival of the Israelites in Canaan into fifty jubilees of forty-nine years each, and describes the various incidents in this period by reference to the particular sabbatic year and jubilee in which it occurred. The other name of the book arises from its being a recast of the narrative given in Genesis, though, while it only gives a selection of the events, its lengthy comments and Midrashic legends actually swell it beyond the compass of the canonical book. Besides attempting to fix the early chronology more definitely, it seeks to explain the difficulties of the sacred narrative, and lays great emphasis upon religious seasons and observances. The complete book is extant only in an Ethiopic version (found by Dr. Krapff in Abyssinia, and translated by Dillmann in Ewald's Jahrbücher, 1851-3; original published by

Judah

Dillmann, 1859), but a considerable portion of a later translation has been issued by Ceriani, and extracts from the Greek version are found in the Byzantine theologians. It was probably written in Hebrew c. 125-100 B.C., but the Ethiopic translator must also have used the Greek version. See R. H. Charles's translation in Jewish Quarterly Review (189395), Ethiopic version (4 MSS. collated, 1895), and complete translation with introduction and commentary (1902).

Júcar, riv. of Spain, rises in the Sierra Albarracin, and flows S. and E. through remarkable defiles, and enters the Mediterranean 25 m. S.S.E. of Valencia. Length, 270 m.; area of basin, 7,620 sq. m.

Juch, EMMA JOHANNA ANTON (1863), American singer, was born in Vienna, Austria, while her parents were visiting that city. She was brought as an infant to New York, and received her musical education from her father and from Murio-Celli. Her operatic début was made at Her Majesty's Grand Italian Opera in London (1881) in the part of Felina, in Thomas's Mignon, and she continued there in leading soprano rôles for three seasons. Returning to the U.S., she appeared in concert and operatic performances with great success, and in 1889 organized her own English opera company with which she toured the country. She was noted for her singing at festivals and in the Wagnerian drama. Miss Juch was married (1894) to Francis L. Wellman, a prominent member of the New York bar.

J.U.D. (Juris Utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Laws-i.e. both of civil and canon law.

Judæa, one of the districts into which Palestine was divided in the time of Christ. The captives who returned from Babylon were mainly of the tribe of Judah, and settled largely in the territory of the ancient kingdom of Judah. The name Judæa sometimes connotes Galilee and Samaria as well-i.e. all Palestine west of the Jordan (Luke 23:5; A.V. Jewry). The wilderness of Judæa, or Judah, was the desert tract to the west of the Dead Sea, which is sometimes called Jeshimon in the Authorized Version.

Judah, the fourth son of Jacob, and the eponymous ancestor of the tribe of the same name. When the Hebrews settled in Canaan as described in the Book of Joshua, the tribe of Judah pressed southwards and established itself in a broad strip of territory to the west of the Dead Sea. It comprised the following four districts: the Hill Country, forming the southern portion of the great cen

Judah ha-Levi

tral ridge of Palestine; the Shephelah, to the west; the wilderness of Judah, or Jeshimon, to the east; and the Negeb, or South Country. The tribe seems to have absorbed large portions of the aboriginal clans. The first king of Israel, Saul, was a Benjamite; but from the accession of David, his successor, the ascendency of Judah becomes marked. The revolt of the ten tribes certainly put her supremacy in dispute; but Judah, with only one other tribe, Benjamin, on her side, was able to resist the eastern invaders for more than a century longer than did her northern rival. See ISRAEL.

Judah ha-Levi (c. 1085-after 1140), Jewish philosopher, poet, and physician, born at Toledo in Spain; was the greatest mediaval poet who wrote in Hebrew. His poetry, largely adopted in the liturgy of the synagogue, reflects the sufferings as well as the aspirations of his people. He died in the Holy Land while on a pilgrimage there. Heine pays a fine tribute to him in his Romanzero. Editions of his works by Edelmann and Dukes (1851), and Diwan des Abul-Hasan Jehuda ha-Levi, ed. Brody (new ed. 1901). Nina Davis translated some of his poems as Songs of Exile (1901). See Kaufmann's Jehuda Halevi (1877).

Judaizers, those early Christian Jews who maintained that the sole difference between Christians and Jews was the acknowledgment on the part of the former that Jesus was the Messiah. They desired to force even upon the heathen converts of the new faith the observances of the Mosaic law, and this explains their extraordinary hostility towards Paul, who advocated Christianity without observance of the Jewish forms. They long disputed the position of Paul, raised factions against him in many of the churches, and professed to adhere to the older apostles, especially Peter. See Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul (1852), ch. xiii.

Judas, 'not Iscariot,' one of the disciples of Jesus (John 14:22), called also Judas the son (R. V.) or brother (A. V.; see JUDE, EPISTLE OF) of James (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13). He is generally identified with Lebbæus or Thaddeus in order to harmonize the discrepant list of the twelve apostles.

Judas Iscariot, one of the disciples of Jesus, and His betrayer, is believed to have belonged to the village of Kerioth (whence his surname, 'Ish-Kariyoth-i.e. 'man of Kariyoth') now ElKarjetein in S. Judah. When he became a disciple, he was chosen to carry and administer the funds (John 13:29). He dis

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played a grasping disposition and ultimately betrayed Jesus to the Jewish authorities for thirty pieces of silver. Overcome with remorse at the dreadful outcome of his crime, he committed suicide, of which rash act two discrepant accounts are given (Matt. 27:3 f.; Acts 1:18). De Quincey and others have maintained that the dark deed of Judas was dictated solely by the desire to force the hand of Jesus-i.e. to compel Him in self-defence miraculously to substantiate his claim of Messiahship. See Lives of Christ as given under JESUS CHRIST. Daub's Judas Ischariot (1816-18) is a profound and ingenious work founded on the New Testament narrative.

Judas Maccabæus, the deliverer of the Jews from the Syrian yoke in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, was the third son of Mattathias, the priest who began the revolt. Judas met and routed in succession the Syrian generals Apollonius and Seron (1 Macc. 3), and captured Beth-horon; defeated Ptolemy, Nicanor, and Georgias near Mizpeh, and Lysias at Beth-sur (164 B.C.). He then devoted himself to the purification of the temple at Jerusalem. He subsequently made successful attacks upon the neighboring tribes, Edom, Ammon, etc.; but after the death of Antiochus (164) his good fortune began to desert him. He suffered a repulse at BethZacharias; and although he again defeated Nicanor at Adasa (161), his army, now shrunk in numbers, was crushed by a large force under Bacchides at Elasa, and himself slain (1 Macc. 9). Judas had every gift of a great generalbodily strength, ready judgment, power of organizing, courage, zeal, and, above all, faith-and is to be regarded as one of the most heroic figures in the history of Israel. His career forms the subject of one of Handel's greatest oratorios, Judas Maccabæus. See 1 Maccabees, and art. MACCABEES.

Judas the Gaulonite, or JUDAS OF GALILEE, with a Pharisee named Sadduk, raised a Jewish insurrection against 'the taxing' under the Roman governor Quirinus (A.D. 6). According to Acts 5:37 he perished and his followers were dispersed; but cf. Josephus, Antiquities, XVIII, vi, 1; xx, V, 2; Jewish War, II, viii, 1; xvii, 8; VII, viii, 1.

Judas Tree, a name sometimes applied to the elder tree, and to various trees belonging to the leguminous genus Cercis, each in turn reported to be the tree on which Judas hanged himself. The European C. siliquastrum is the species most frequently meant, and the name has been transferred to the American representative of the genus Cercis, C. canaden

Judd

sis, most common in the Middle States, where it reaches a height of about 50 ft., and a trunk diameter of 1 foot. The pink-purple, papilionaceous flowers appear in profusion before the foliage.

Judd, NORMAN BUEL (181578), American lawyer, politician, and diplomatist, born at Rome, N. Y., where he was admitted to the bar in 1836. Removing to Chicago (1836) he drafted the first charter of that city (1837), became prominent as a lawyer and took an active part in politics first as a Democrat and afterwards as a Republican. He was a member of the Illinois senate (1844-60), was a delegate to the Republican national conventions of 1856 and 1860, was U. S. minister to Prussia during all the Civil War period (1861-5), was a Republican representative in Congress (1867–71), and was collector of the port of Chicago under Pres. Grant (1873– 6).

Judd, ORANGE (1822-92), American editor and publisher, was born near Niagara Falls, N. Y., and graduated (1847) at Wesleyan University. After some years of work as a teacher he took a course at Yale (1850-3) in analytical and agricultural chemistry, and began to contribute to agricultural papers: Editor of the American Agriculturalist (185383), of which he became proprietor in 1856. Mr. Judd was actively engaged in field work with the U. S. Sanitary Commission during the Civil War. He removed to Chicago, 1883, and there established the Orange Judd Farmer and the company by which it is published. He founded the Hall of Natural Science at Wesleyan (1871), which bears his name, and was active as a trustee of the university (1871-81). His writings are contained in the periodiIcals which he edited.

Judd, SYLVESTER (1813-53), American author, son of the antiquarian of the same name, was born at Westhampton, Mass., and graduated (1836) at Yale. He was brought up in Orthodox beliefs, but adopted the Unitarian faith, and after completing his course at the Harvard divinity school, was pastor of the Unitarian church at Augusta, Me., from 1840 until his death. His first creative work was the wellknown novel Margaret, a Tale of the Real and Ideal (1845), an 'attempt to fill up a gap long left open in Unitarian literaturethat of imaginative writings.' It represents life in New England under the severe clerical dispensation of the day, and is notable for sympathetic appreciation of the beauties of nature. Mr. Judd was prominent as an advocate of temperance, anti-slavery and other reforms. His Philo,

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