Lessing

to undertake whatever literary work presented itself, for a mere living; he worked for the papers, translated, and wrote plays. In 1752 he went to Wittenberg and took his M.A. degree. On his return to Berlin he studied particularly English and Latin literature, and gave the first striking example of his critical gifts in the Vademecum für den Herrn S. G. Lange (1754). In 1755 he published his first important drama, Miss Sara Sampson, described as a bürgerliches Trauerspiel, which shows the influence of English models. During a short stay at Leipzig he made the acquaintance of Christian Ewald von Kleist, and wrote the patriotic play Philotas. Lessing's third stay in Berlin (1758-60) is marked by the publication of the Briefe die neueste Litteratur betreffend, of which Lessing wrote fifty-four. and his friend, Friedrich Nicolai, the remainder. He also wrote his Abhandlung über die Fabel and Fabeln, remarkable for their conciseness. When secretary to General von Tauenzien, the governor of Breslau (1760-5), he saw something of the Seven Years' war, and gathered the materials for his Minna von Barnhelm. In 1766 appeared his Laokoon, which overthrew the Horatian precept ut pictura poesis, a source of many errors in the works of the Zürich writers and their numerous followers. In the following year he published Minna von Barnhelm, the first of all German comedies, and still without a rival. Lessing, who had failed to obtain the post of librarian to Frederick the Great, accepted an invitation to Hamburg, where he was to direct and elevate the theatre. His criticisms of the actors and of the plays performed were collected under the title of Hamburgische Dramaturgie (1768-9). His knowledge of classical antiquity and scholarly methods were apparent in the Briefe antiquarischen Inhalts (1768) and the beautiful essay Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet. He next went to the little town of Wolfenbüttel as librarian to the Duke of Brunswick (1770), and wrote his fine tragedy Emilia Galotti (1772); while in 1774 he published, under the title Fragmente eines Ungenannten, some extracts from the manuscripts of Professor Reimarus, a freethinker, concerning the credibility of the New Testament, which led to a stormy and prolonged controversy with the orthodox Lutherans, headed by Pastor Goeze of Hamburg. Lessing showed the weakness of their polemics in a number of brilliant pamphlets, until, in 1778, the Duke of Brunswick prohibited him from issuing any more.

He

288

returned to his old pulpit, the stage,' and preached an enlightened religion and a broad tolerance in the noble dramatic poem Nathan der Weise (1779). In 1780 he summed up his views on the progressive character of religion in mankind in Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts, a fitting conclusion to his strenuous lifework. Lessing's grand sincerity and independence of character, and the unique combination of critical and creative powers seen in his works, make him the greatest German writer since Luther. Goethe and Schiller looked up to him and learned from him, and to many he is still one of the world's great leaders. A considerable literature has grown up around him and his works. These were edited by K. Lachmann (re-edited by Fr. Muncker) in 15 vols. (1886-1900). There is another edition, in 14 vols., by R. Boxberger and H. Blümner in Kürschner's Deutsche NationalLitteratur. See biographies by Danzel and Guhrauer (1850-4), Erich Schmidt (1884), Borinski (1900); in English-Sime (1877), Helen Zimmern (1878), and Rolleston (1889); in French-E. Grucker (1896); and Lessing als Reformator der Deutschen Litteratur, by Fischer (1881).

Lesson, or LECTION, a portion of holy Scripture or other religious matter read at divine service. The word is principally applied to the part of the Old Testament called 'the first lesson,' and to that of the New Testament termed 'the second lesson,' set down in the English and American Prayer Books to be read at morning and evening prayer. In the Greek Church the daily offices contain no lessons from Scripture, although the worshippers read the gospel on Sunday mornings both in the office and in the liturgy.

Lester, CHARLES EDWARD (1815-90), American author, was born at Griswold, Conn. He was a descendant of Jonathan Edwards, and studied for the ministry, but was obliged to abandon preaching and go abroad for his health. He was U. S. consul a Genoa, 1842-6, and afterward resided in New York, engaged in editorial and literary work. Some of his numerous books are, The Glory and the Shame of England (1841), Life and Public Services of Charles Sumner (1874), and History of the United States (1883).

Lestershire, vil., Broome co., N. Y., 2 m. w. of Binghamton, on the Erie and Lackawanna R. Rs. It has boot and shoe, spool and bobbin, felting and furniture factories. The village was founded in 1889. Pop. (1905) 4,035.

L'Estrange, SIR ROGER (1616

Letters

1704), English pamphleteer, was born at Hunstanton, Norfolk. L'Estrange accompanied Charles I. to Scotland (1639), was imprisoned in Newgate for complicity in a plot to seize Lynn Regis (1644), escaped to the Continent (1648), where he remained till pardoned by Cromwell in 1653. During the protectorate he issued many anonymous writings on the political situation. Under Charles II. and James II. he was a stern licenser of the press and a rough pamphleteer, displaying what Bishop Burnet called 'unexhausted copiousness in writing.' After the revolution he lost his office of licenser, and between 1688 and 1696 was several times

imprisoned as a suspect. His scholarly tastes and accomplishments are revealed in his translations of Quevedo's 'Visions' (1667), Cicero's De Officiis, and Erasmus's Colloquia (1680), Esop's Fables (1692), Seneca's Moralia (1693), and Josephus (1702); his Memento, in defence of the monarchy (1662); and his Brief History of the Times, exposing Titus Oates (1687).

Le Sueur, EUSTACHE (161755), French painter of historical and sacred subjects, born in Paris. His pictures are invariably characterized by nobility of sentiment and excellent draughtsmanship and composition, but the color is, as a rule, feeble and artificial. His best works are in the Louvre, notably his Prédication de Saint Paul & Ephèse and La Messe de Saint Martin.

Lethbridge, tn., Alberta, Canada, 95 m. S.E. by s. of Calgary, and on the Can. Pac. and Alberta R. Rs. The principal industry is coal mining. Pop. (1901) 2,279.

Lethe, in ancient Greek mythology, the river in the lower world from which departed spirits drank to obtain forgetfulness of the past; the name itself means forgetfulness.

Leto, called Latona by the Romans, was, in ancient_mythology, a daughter of the Titan Cous and Phoebe. Zeus loved her, and by him she became the mother of Apollo and Artemis. She was generally worshipped in conjunction with her children.

Letter of Attorney. See POWER OF ATTORNEY.

Letter of Credit. See Bank, -Banker and Customer.

Letters. See ALPHABET, PHONETICS, and A, B, etc.

Letters, or epistolary writing, may be regarded as constituting in the main one of the most attractive forms of literature. When a man addresses himself to the general public, whether in speech or writing, he inevitably suffers to some extent from the constraint of self-consciousness. But in letters written without

Letters of Marque

the slightest thought of publication, as the best letters are, there are an easy charm and a naturalness which appeal to all. Some of the most delightful correspondence comes from the pens of people who are not, in the ordinary sense, literary at all. The genuine nature of the writer comes out conspicuously under such conditions; as in the artless effusion of James VI. of Scotland, written from the court of Denmark, where he announced himself to be 'drinking and driving ow'r,' or in the boyish letters of his son Charles. This ingenuous frankness is also apparent in the celebrated collection known as The Paston Letters (ed. by Gairdner, 1904). These letters were written (1422-1509), mostly to or by members of the Norfolk family of Paston (afterwards Earls of Yarmouth), by whom they were preserved, being eventually pubfished, for the first time, in 1823. Besides throwing considerable light upon historical matters and English life during the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III., they are alive with the personal element which is the chief attraction of unstudied correspondence. It is for this reason that published letters, if selected and edited with judgment, always find numerous readers. The Letters of Jane Welsh Carlyle (1883, 1889) and the Vailima Letters (1895) of R. L. Stevenson may be named as two of the most interesting collections of recent times in the English language. The epistolary form has been frequently selected as a vehicle for didactic and political purposes. For example, the religious teaching of the early Christian apostles, as preserved at the present day, is for the most part conveyed in this shape. The direct address has an efficacy not easily attained in an impersonal treatise. Although devoted to the teaching of worldly wisdom, the Letters of Lord Chesterfield to his Son (1774-87) afford another instance of the choice of this method. In his Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826), Sir Walter Scott found an effective weapon for achieving a patriotic and political purpose; in Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk (1815) he anticipated the brilliant war-cor respondent of to-day. The advantages of the epistolary method may be held to be abused, however, in what is called the 'open letter.'

Letters of Marque, a commission issued by a government, authorizing masters of merchant ships, privateers, and others to capture prizes and property on the high seas or in harbor, by way of reprisals for damage done. By the Declaration of Paris, the granting of letters of marque was forbidden. The U. S. Con

VOL. VII.-19

289

gress is given power by the Constitution to grant letters of marque and reprisal, and the power is expressly denied to the several states. The United States was not a party to the above treaty, and eminent authorities doubt if Congress has power to join in a treaty abolishing privateering. See PARIS, DECLARATION OF; also Hall's International Law (5th ed. 1904), and Wheatcn's International Law (4th ed. 1904).

Letters Patent. See PATENT. Letter-wood, the mottled brown heart-wood of Brossimum Aubletii, a tree native to British Guiana. It is used as a veneer, and is also known as 'snakewood."

Lettres de Cachet. In France, before the revolution, the king had power to issue sealed letters to governors of prisons and others, authorizing them to arrest and detain the persons named therein. The letters were frequently issued by the king in blank, and distributed by the ministers to those who wished to rid themselves of troublesome relations. They were extensively employed by Richelieu, Mazarin, and Louis XIV., both for purposes of state and for private ends, and were abolished by the National Assembly (1789). Letts. See LIVONIA.

Lettuce, an annual plant Lactuca scariolo (sativa), a native of Eastern and Central Asia, and Southern Europe. It has long been cultivated as a salad plant,

1, Cabbage lettuce; 2, cos lettuce.

and was grown by the ancient Greeks and Romans for this purpose. By careful treatment and selection of varieties, lettuces may be grown in the open air most of the year. There are two great

..eucocythæ mia

classes, 'cabbage lettuces' and 'cos lettuces'-the former being distinguished by their broad leaves and low, spreading habit; the latter by their upright habit, and the oblong form of their leaves. The seed should be sown at intervals in a warm frame from January to early March, after which successional sowings may be made out of doors. In September and October sowings may again be made in frames, so as to provide plants for early spring, but only sufficient protection is required to exclude frost. Air should be given whenever possible. Thinning should be early practised, an ultimate distance of nine inches being allowed from plant to plant.

Leucadendron, a genus of S. African trees and shrubs, order Proteaceæ. The best known species is L. argenteum, the silvertree or wittebroom, with its beautiful, long, silvery-white leaves, well worth cultivation.

Leucippus, a Greek philosopher, who probably flourished about the middle of the 5th century B.C. He is said to have invented the atomic theory expounded by his pupil Democritus.

Leucite, potassium and aluminium silicate found in the lavas of Vesuvius, in which it forms white or ash-gray, rounded, manyfaced crystals (h.=5, sp. gr. 2.5), mostly embedded in a black crystalline rock. It is found also in Rhenish Prussia, Australia, N. America, and other parts of the globe, and is specially characteristic of recent lavas. Leucite is interesting to the mineralogist because of its apparently anomalous structure and optical properties. At first glance its crystals would seem to belong to the cubic or isometric system; yet they are not isotropic, but in polarized light are seen to be built up of a complex series of intersecting lamellæ. These disappear when the section is heated to a temperature of about 500° c., and the crystal becomes isometric both in its external form and internal properties.

Leuckart, RUDOLF (1822-98), German zoologist, born at Helmstedt. He became professor of zoology, first at Giessen (1850), and afterwards at Leipzig (1869). His most notable works are Die Parasiten des Menschen (186376), partly translated into English by Hoyle (1886), and Die Anatomie der Beine (1885).

Leucocrinum, the sand lily of Colorado, is a liliaceous genus containing the one species L. montanum. This is a dwarfgrowing, hardy plant, bearing, close to the ground, clusters of white, funnel-shaped, fragrant flowers in early spring.

Leucocythemia (Gr. leukos, white; kytos, cell; haima, blood),

Leucolum

or LEUKÆMIA, is a disease characterized by great increase in the number of white corpuscles present in the blood, and generally by some decrease in the red corpuscles. Two forms are recognized, one of which is associated with changes in the spleen and the bone marrow, and is known as the myelogenous type. In advanced cases the spleen is enormously enlarged. The other form is the lymphatic, which is accompanied by enlargement of the lymphatic glands throughout the body, and of the spleen to a less degree. While a few recoveries from leucocythæmia have been recorded, all forms of the disease are intractible, although many of them show temporary improvements or remissions. Arsenic and iron, quinine and bone-marrow have proved to be of most service in all forms.

Leucoium, or SNOWFLAKE, a genus of hardy, bulbous plants, order Amaryllidacea. They have usually long, narrow leaves, and pendulous white flowers, remotely like those of the snowdrop. The principal species are L. vernum, which bears fragrant, white, green-tipped flowers in spring; L. aestivum, which flowers a little later; and L. autumnale.

Leucoma, or ALBUGO (Gr. leukos, 'white'), is an exceedingly dense white cicatrix which sometimes follows deep ulceration of the cornea. When situated near the centre of the pupil, it seriously impairs the vision of the affected eye.

Should the ulceration be sufficiently deep to perforate the cornea, the iris not infrequently protrudes and becomes incorporated in the cicatrix, the condition then being known as leucoma adherens. Many corneal opacities clear up to some extent in the course of time, and should they be superficial, gentle massage of the eye accelerates their resolution. If, however, a leucoma is permanent, large, or centrally situated, it may interfere with vision to such an extent that iridectomy, or the making of an artificial pupil, is advisable should there be enough clear corneal tissue available for the operation.

Leucopogon, a genus of tropical and subtropical evergreen shrubs, order Epacridaceæ. They bear terminal axillary spikes of small white flowers. Most of the species are natives of Australia, among them being L. Richei (the native currant), a winter blooming kind.

Leuctra, small tn. in Boeotia, ancient Greece, famous for the great victory gained in its neighborhood by the Thebans over the Spartans (371 B.C.), which practically ended Spartan supremacy in Greece.

Leukas, or LEUCADIA, now

290

called Santa Maura, isl. in the Ionian Sea, off the coast of Acarnania, in W. Greece, 46 m. S.E. of Corfu. It is about 20 m. long and 8 m. at most in breadth, and has an area of about 100 m. The chief products are currants, wine, and oil. Its capital is Amaxichi or Leukas, on the N.E. coast. Its name 'Whiteland' is due to the chalky nature of its hills, the highest of which attain to an elevation of 3,700 ft. Colonized by Corinthians about 650 B.C., they made it an island by cutting a canal through the narrow isthmus which connected it with the mainland.

Leukerbad, wat.-pl., with hot springs, canton Valais, Switzerland, at the s. foot of the Gemmi Pass, 9 m. N. of the Upper Rhône valley. Alt. 4,629 ft. Pop. (1900)

600.

Leupp, FRANCIS ELLINGTON (1849), American journalist and Federal official, born in New York city, and educated at Williams College (1870) and at the Columbia Law School (1872). In 1874 he became connected with the New York Evening Post, for which paper he was Washington staff contributor, and then Washington correspondent, in 1885-1904, when he was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs. He assumed charge of this office Jan. 1, 1905. He published How to Prepare for a Civil Service Examination (1898), and The Man Roosevelt (1904), a readable, if somewhat biased biography of the President.

Leuthen, vil. of Lower Silesia, Prussia, 9 m. w. of Breslau, is noted for the victory gained on Dec. 5, 1757, by Frederick the Great over three times the number of Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine. Pop. about 800.

Leutze, EMANUEL (181668), German-American historical painter, born at Gmünd, Würtemberg, and studied art in Düsseldorf, making his home there until 1859, when he went to the U. S., where he received a commission to paint Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way (1860) for the capitol at Washington. Among his other works are Columbus before the Council at Salamanca (1841), Cromwell Visiting Milton, and his chef-d'œuvre, Washington Crossing the Delaware (now in the Kunsthalle at Bremen).

Levaillant, FRANÇOIS (17531824), French ornithologist and traveller, born in Dutch Guiana. He undertook explorations in Central Africa (1781-5), and made collections of the birds and large mammals. The results of his researches appeared in Voyage dans l'Intérieur de l'Afrique (1790), Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux d'Afrique (1796

Level

1812), and Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux de Paradis et des Rolliers (1806).

Levant (Ital. Levante, the 'sunrise'), a name first applied by the Italians to the Mediterranean Sea and the regions adjoining it to the E. of Italy. It now refers to the east end of the Mediterranean and the adjoining countries, whose inhabitants are designated Levantines. See Harts's A Levantine Log-Book (1905).

Level. (1.) An instrument for obtaining the direction of a line parallel to the horizon, or testing the horizontality of surfaces. It depends in its various forms on the principle that the surface of a liquid at rest is horizontal. The water-level, which is the simplest variety of the instrument consists of two glass vials fixed vertically at the ends of a straight metal tube, with which they communicate below. Colored water is poured into the instrument so as to fill the tube and vials nearly to the top of the latter, so that, if the tube is fixed in a nearly horizontal position on a stand, the true horizontal line will be the line of sight over the surface of the water in the two vials. Instruments based on the spirit-level are, however, much niore accurate and convenient. The spirit-level

FIG. 1.-Spirit-level.

consists of a glass tube bent into a portion of the arc of a very large circle, filled all but a small bubble with alcohol, and mounted in a case so that the plane of the arc is vertical. As the bubble represents the free surface of the liquid, it seeks the highest position it can, which, when the instrument is horizontal, is in the middle of the tube, but when either end is raised, moves toward the higher side. For rough purposes circular levels are sometimes employed, and consist of a brass case with slightly convex glass cover. The case is nearly filled with alcohol as before, and, in accordance with the above principle, is adjusted so that the bubble is quite central when the level is on a horizontal surface. In levelling for surveying purposes, the spirit-level is fixed parallel to the axis of a telescope provided with cross hairs, and the latter directed to a vertical measure, or levelling rod, held first in one position and then in another, the difference of the readings observed on the staff giving the difference of level between the two points. The illustration shows an ordinary type of surveyors' or Y-level and the process is described below.

Levelling

See SURVEYING; THEODOLITE. (2.) A level in mining is a horizontal gallery run to connect shafts and to open the ground. See MINING.

Levelling. A surveying operation involving the determination of different points or objects at or near the earth's surface, as in the construction of railways, mines and tunnels. Levelling is usually carried on with a level of one of the forms described above, or by the use of some form of hypsometrical apparatus. Levelling may vary from the precise work involved in railway or waterworks operation to the more approximate determinations of altitudes in rapid topographical surveys. These altitudes are usually referred either to sealevel or to some fixed and known datum point, whose position relative to sea-level has been determined with precision. If an approximation of the altitude is desired, use can be made of the boiling point apparatus, which consists of an accurately graduated thermometer inserted in a vessel containing water, which is brought to ebullition by a spirit lamp. This is based on the fact that the boiling point of water depends upon the atmospheric pressure and this, in turn, depends upon the altitude of a given point above the sea-level. Thus water that boils at 212° F. at sea-level, boils at 193.2° F. at 10,000 feet. With a good mercurial barometer or accurately graduated aneroid, the atmospheric pressure can also be determined and the altitudes computed, a rough rule being to assume that the barometer falls one-tenth of an inch for every 90 feet above sea-level up to 1,000 feet, and beyond that point the rate decreases, so that at one mile high the barometer falls one-tenth of an inch for every increase of about 106 feet, its height at this point being about 26.56 inches. Various corrections, of course, must be applied for determining heights with the barometer or boiling point apparatus, and tables are prepared which give the readings direct.

In using the surveyor's level, the telescope is set perfectly horizontal and pointed back at a rod placed vertically at the starting point. The rod is graduated and after a reading has been taken of the height above the ground cut by the cross wires of the telescope, it is moved to a point forward of the instrument, which is then revolved in a horizontal plane and a reading taken of the rod in its new position. The difference in level is obtained from the difference in readings of the two points, and subsequent readings are taken by removing the level, sighting

291

Lever

Scotland. The Leven flows in at its eastern extremity. To the s. lie the wild and romantic valley of Glencoe and the great slate quar

The three Orders of Levers, with Examples of their Application.

lin. After spending two years in Holland and Germany and making a visit to Canada, he settled down in his native city, and began to contribute fiction to the Dublin University Magazine. In that journal his first two novels, Harry Lorrequer (1839) and Charles O'Malley (1841), appeared as serials. In 1842 he became editor of the magazine, and from that time till 1872 he published novels in rapid succession. His books are brilliant sketches of Irish life and character, full of rollicking humor,

astronomy in the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris (1837), he prosecuted Laplace's work in celestial mechanics. His Tables de Mercure were published in 1843. At Arago's bidding he attacked the problem of Uranus, and solved it by the discovery of Neptune, found from his indications, Sept. 23, 1846. Having entered the Legislative Assembly (1849), he was named senator by Napoleon III., and became director of the Paris Observatory (1854). His uncompromising reforms excited

Levita

hostility, and he was removed (1870), but was reinstated by Thiers in 1873.

Levertin, OSCAR (1862), Swedish novelist and poet, privat docent at the University of Upsala since 1882. His earlier novels were materialistic, but his poems, Legender och Visor (1891) and Nya Dikter (1894), show him to be a true romanticist. As a critic he has produced some excellent work, his subject being the literature of the 18th century, especially the Gustavan period (e.g. Gustaf III. som dramatisk författare).

Levi. See LEVITES.

Levi, LEONE (1821-88), English jurist and economist, born at Ancona, Italy, of Jewish parentage; went to England (1844) and settled at Liverpool, where he taught political economy, and advocated the establishment of chambers of commerce. While secretary to the chamber in Liverpool, he collected material for his great work Commercial Law of the World (2d ed. 1863), which led to the Mercantile Law Amendment Acts. His History of British Commerce, 1863-70, appeared in 1872 (2d ed. 1880), and his Annals of British Legislation (1856-68).

Leviathan (Heb. liwyäthän, perhaps from liwyah, 'a wreath' the wreathed or twisted animal), an aquatic monster (LXX., drakon) mentioned several times in the Bible. Its description as given in Job 41 best fits the crocodile; and the reference in Ps. 74:14 is probably to the same, regarded as a symbol of Egypt or Pharaoh. But as the crocodile is not a seaanimal, the leviathan of Ps. 104:26 may be the whale; while Job 3:8 (R. V.; A. V. 'their mourning') seems an allusion to the dragon, which was believed to have the power of eclipsing the sun and moon. Cf. also Isa. 27:1. The text of Job 40 and Ps. 104 is probably corrupt.

Levis, or POINT LEVI, tn., prov. of Quebec, Canada, co. seat of Levis co., on the r. bk. of the St. Lawrence, opposite the city of Quebec, with which it is connected by a ferry service. It is on the Grand Trunk, Intercolonial, and Quebec Central R. Rs., and is the landing place of passengers on ocean steamers from Europe. It is a large centre of the shipping trade, has large docks and important manufactures of lumber. It is strongly fortified, and is the seat of convents and other educational institutions. Pop. (1901) 7,783.

Levita, ELIAS (1465-1549), Jewish grammarian and exegete, born in Germany. When the Jews were expelled from that country he went to Italy, where he taught Hebrew. His writings include works on the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Amos, a Hebrew gram