Liutprand

Alexandria; St. Chrysostom's, used at Constantinople; St. Basil's, also at Constantinople; St. Basil's, at Alexandria; the liturgies of Ethiopia, of Nestorius, and of Severus; the Gothic missal, the Gallican, the Mozarabic, and the Roman.

For further information consult Neale's Introduction to the History of the Holy Eastern Church (1868), Hammond's Liturgies Eastern and Western (1878), and Maskell's Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England (1844).

Liutprand, or LIUDPRAND (c. 922-c. 972), Italian bishop and chronicler at the court of Berengarius of Italy, by whom he was sent on an embassy to Constantinople in 949. But the withdrawal of his patron's favor sent Liutprand to the court of Otto I. of Germany, after whose invasion of Italy he became bishop of Cremona. He took his revenge on Berengarius in Anta podosis, a history of the period 886-950. He also wrote De Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni Imperatoris (960-4); and a satire, De Legatione Constantinopolitana (968-9). The best edition of his works is in the Monumenta Germania Historica. See Köpke's De Vita Liud prandi (1842), and Baldeschi's Liudprando (1889).

Livadia. (1.) Township, 3 m. s.w. of Yalta town, on S. coast of Crimea, S. Russia. It is famous for its Russian Imperial residence, a favorite resort of Alexander II., and much used by his successors. (2.) (Gr. Lebadeia), tn., nomarchy of Boeotia and Attica, Greece, on Lamos, near Lake Copais, 57 m. N.W. of Athens; owed its importance in ancient times to the subterranean oracle of Trophonios. Produces oil and grain. Pop. (1896) 6,494.

Liver. The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing nearly four pounds, and measuring about eleven inches in transverse diam

Under Surface of Liver.

A, Right lobe; B, left lobe; c, quadrate lobe; D, caudate lobe; E, Spigelian lobe; F, gall-bladder; G, inferior vena cava; H, portal vein; 1, hepatic artery; J, hepatic duct; K, umbilical vein.

eter. Its upper surface is convex, and lies in contact with the diaphragm above; while its lower surface is concave, arching over

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and touching the stomach, intestine, and right kidney. In shape the liver is irregular, being thickest from above downwards upon the right side, and extending in wedge fashion towards the left. It is also thicker posteriorly, and presents in front a thin edge which is marked by a deep notch. The right lower border corresponds with the margin of the ribs, but its position varies to some extent with the movements of the diaphragm, to which the liver is attached by ligaments, formed by folds of the peritoneal covering, which also dips into the fissures. Five fissures on the under surface of the organ divide it into a corresponding number of lobes, and in one of the anterior fissures lies the gall-bladder, a pear-shaped membraneous sac about four inches in length and one inch in breadth at its widest part. One of the fissures on the posterior border of the liver is occupied by a portion of the inferior vena cava, which receives the blood from the hepatic veins before it passes upwards through the diaphragm. The blood supply of the liver is complicated. Like all other animal tissues, it requires arterial blood. Amongst the functions of the liver are the elaboration and the storing up of certain products of digestion which are brought to it by the portal vein. This large venous trunk is built up by the union of the intestinal veins which contain blood charged with food extractives, and reaching the liver it ramifies like an artery within the substance of that organ. liver substance consists of innumerable distinct lobules which longitudinally are oblong, but transversely present a polygonal surface. The liver is plentifully supplied with lymphatics, and with nerves largely derived from the sympathetic system.

The

Until comparatively recent years the chief function of the liver was supposed to be the production of bile, the importance of which in the process of digestion was greatly overestimated. Bile is a golden-yellow fluid, intensely bitter in taste, and alkaline in reaction. Bile is now regarded more as an excretion than a secretion, being a by-product formed by the liver cells in the course of manufacture of more important compounds. Receiving as it does the blood from the alimentary canal, the liver subjects the food to a second digestion, and while transmitting through the hepatic veins to the general circulation whatever is required for immediate use, it retains and stores up any surplus, which it subsequently doles out to the tissues as required. The substance which is thus manufactured and passed on to the blood is a sugar called

Liver

glucose, and the excess is stored up in the liver cells in the form of glycogen. One more function of the liver is the regulation of the number of red blood corpuscles. During foetal life great numbers of red blood cells are produced in the hepatic capillaries. After birth, however, the liver assumes the opposite role in the economy of the blood, destroying, as it does, the old and effete red corpuscles, whose hæmin and other iron-free pigments it excretes with the bile, the iron of the hæmoglobin being retained for subsequent use.

The commoner diseases of the liver have already been dealt with in the articles JAUNDICE and GALL-STONES, but there remain to be described some pathological conditions in which jaundice may not be a symptom. Of these, cirrhosis in one or other of its forms is the commonest. This disease is due to long-con

Cells (A) and Capillary Blood-
vessels (B) of Liver.

tinued irritation of the liver, and is generally associated with alcoholic indulgence; but a similar condition follows the chronic venous congestion caused by some forms of heart disease. In the later stages of the disease the liver is hardened and greatly decreased in size. The symptoms vary to an extreme degree, even advanced cirrhosis in some cases causing little disturbance. In other cases chronic congestion of the abdominal organs results, bringing in its train intestinal irregularities and hæmorrhages, kidney cirrhosis, oedema of the feet and legs, and finally ascites. Should jaundice be present, it is generally only slight. In some cases, more especially when the kidneys also are cirrhosed, cerebral symptoms en

sue.

Treatment must be directed toward the relief of symptoms, and if possible the arrest of the process. Total abstinence from alcohol is essential. Diuretics and sharp purgatives help to relieve the engorged abdominal vessels, and in some cases iodide of potassium is useful. Digital's may also be employed to give tone to the vessels. When ascites develops it is advisable to resort to tapping.

Liver Fluke

Fatty liver may in drunkards be associated with cirrhosis, or it may be merely a part of a general obesity. From such conditions which are due to infiltration of fat must be distinguished fatty degeneration, which occurs in acute yellow atrophy of the liver, or as a result of certain poisons like phosphorus.

New growths of the liver and bile passages are not infrequent. They may arise primarily, or may be secondary to disease elsewhere. Carcinoma is the commonest form of malignant growth in the liver; sarcomata are also found, but they are usually secondary.

Abscess of the liver is happily rare in this country. When it does occur it is usually the result of pyæmia or of septicemia. In the tropics solitary liver abscesses are not uncommon as a sequela of dysentery. Such solitary abscesses may become encysted and give rise to little or no further trouble, or they may point and rupture. Of late years great success has attended the evacuation of liver abscesses by free incision and drainage.

Rupture of the liver sometimes occurs as the result of a blow, and wounds may be caused by bullets or by cutting instruments.

Liver Fluke (Distomum hepaticum), a destructive parasite of the sheep, in which it gives rise to the disease known as sheep-rot or liver-rot. The adult fluke is about one inch in length

Liver Fluke (Distomum
hepaticum).

A, Fluke; B, ovum, containing a developed embryo; c, free and ciliated embryo.

and half an inch in breadth, and is flat, oval, and leaflike. The name Distomum, or two mouths, refers to the fact that in addition

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to the true mouth there is an imperforate sucker, looking like another opening, a short distance behind the mouth. The alimentary system consists of a blind but much-branched gut, and there is a very complex system of reproductive organs. The life history is complex. The adults live in the liver and bile-ducts of the sheep, and their very numerous eggs pass out of the body of the host with the fæces. If they fall on damp ground, the shell which surrounds the egg bursts after a lapse of some weeks, and a little ciliated embryo emerges. This swims about in water for a few hours on the surface of the ground, but dies if within that time it does not come into contact with a fresh-water snail (Limnæus). If it meet the snail, it enters its 'lung' or pulmonary chamber, and there becomes converted into a stationary form known as the sporocyst. The sporocyst produces eggs which develop without previous fertilization into new forms called rediæ. The rediæ migrate from the lung to the liver of the snail, and there produce successive generations of rediæ. Eventually, however, they produce a new form known as the cercaria. This has a long tail, two suckers, and a forked food-canal. It wriggles out of the snail, swims through the water by means of its tail, and finally becomes encysted on stems of grass at the margin of the pool. If these cysts be eaten by a sheep, the wall dissolves in the stomach, and the cercaria grows into an adult fluke. Effective drainage of the pastures is the best way of keeping down the disease. The parasite is most common in the sheep, but it is also capable of living in oxen and even in man himself. For the allies of the liver fluke, see article TREMATODES.

a

Livermore, MARY ASHTON, (1821-1905), American reformer, was born (Rice) at Boston, Mass., and studied at Charlestown female seminary, where she taught for several years. She was married to the Rev. D. P. Livermore (1845), and resided in Chicago, where her husband and herself edited the New Covenant, Universalist paper. Mrs. Livermore performed great services in connection with the Sanitary Commission in the Civil War. Afterward she took an active interest in the Woman's Suffrage movement, was editor of woman suffrage papers, and became widely known as a lecturer on this subject and on temperance, she being president of the Mass. Women's Christian Temperance Union for many years. Author of Pen Pictures (1863), What Shall We Do with Our Daughters?

Liverpool

(1883), and The Story of my Life (1897).

Liver of Sulphur. See SUL

PHUR.

Liverpool. (1.) Parl. and munic. city in the county palatine of Lancaster and the hundred of W. Derby, England. It is situated on the eastern bank of the river Mersey, about 3 m. from the sea. The derivation of the first half of its name is obscure, but liver (the bulrush or waterflag) or lither (lower) seems the most probable. Pool is obviously derived from the sea-lake or inlet of the Mersey, which originally formed the natural boundary of the place on the s. and E. Historically we begin to hear of the town during the Irish wars of Henry II., that king finding it a convenient place for the embarkation of his troops. In 1207, during the reign of King John, the town received its first charter. In the same reign the castle of Liverpool was built. Though it existed some four hundred years, it made no mark in history. After the rebellion Charles II. dismantled it, and in 1725 it was entirely demolished. In 1229 Henry III. granted the town a charter of incorporation, and in it gave powers for the formation of a trades guild. Charles I. sold the manor of Liverpool to certa in merchants of London, who reconveyed it in 1632 to Lord Molyneux of Sefton for $2,250. Ultimately the corporation purchased the reversion of the manor and its rights for $11,250. The growth of Liverpool and the development of its commerce from this time were so rapid that when Parliament in 1856 deprived the town of its town dues, the corporation received $7,500,000 as compensation.

Originally the port of Liverpool was under the jurisdiction of the customs officials of Chester, but in 1647 a separation took place, and Liverpool became independent. With the formation of the parish (1699) the erection of the present pro-cathedral church of St. Peter was begun, and was consecrated five years afterwards. In 1880 the diocese of Liverpool was created out of that of Chester, and Dr. J. C. Ryle became its first bishop. For some years the question of a cathedral for Liverpool had been much discussed, but without much practical result. Under the influence of Dr. Chavasse, the successor to Dr. Ryle, this question was revived, with the result that the site for a cathedral has now been settled upon, plans by Mr. G. Gilbert Scott accepted, and nearly $1,000,000 of the necessary building fund raised. King Edward VII. laid the foundation stone in 1904.

Liverpool is also a bishopric of the Roman Catholic Church,

Liverpool

mutton, bacon, hams), $70,270,940; tobacco, $15,045,655; sugar $17,328,820. The values of some of the principal exports during the same year were: cotton manufactures, $245,567.760; iron and steel manufactures, $46,606,010; woollen manufactures, $42,262,675; machinery and mill work, $31,145,725.

The following statement by the secretary of the Liverpool Shipowner's Association presents some striking comparisons:-"The annual average tonnage entered and cleared at Liverpool from and to foreign countries is 9,450,000 tons, and to British possessions 1,980,000 tons-total, 11,430,000 tons. In 1903 the tonnage owned in Liverpool exceeded by more than half a million the tonnage of the German empire; exceeded by a million the tonnage owned by Norway; exceeded by a million and a half the tonnage owned by France; and was nearly three times the oversea tonnage owned by the United States of America.'

The visitor to Liverpool has no more interesting and instructive sight than an inspection of its seven miles of continuous docks and surrounding quays. Though all this is better observed on foot, there is the alternative of a journey by the overhead electric railway. The total area of the dock estate is 1,614 acres, and the quayage 36 m. Of this, 506 acres of land and dock space and 9 m. of quayage are in Birkenhead. The great landing stage was constructed in 1847, and enlarged in 1874 and 1897, for the purpose of facilitating the immense passenger traffic by the numerous steamers plying to the Mersey ferries, by the coasting steamers, and by ocean liners.

The University of Liverpool, formerly a constituent college in the Victoria University, Manchester, was incorporated by royal charter on July 15, 1903; and by a special Act of Parliament, Aug. 14,1903, the powers and property of the University College, Liverpool, were transferred from the Victoria University to the new University of Liverpool. Besides degrees in arts, science, engineering, law, niedicine, and dental surgery, it grants diplomas in education, in public health, (.P.H.), in tropical medicine (D.T.M.), in veterinary hygiene (D.V.H.). Certificates are granted in architecture and in engineering. The School of Tropical Medicine is governed by a committee representing the university, the Royal Southern Hospital, and the merchants and shipowners of Liverpool, its main objects being to train medical men in the treatment of tropical diseases, and to encourage research. The Veterinary School

Liverpool

forms part of the university. The corporation veterinary hospitals and the public abattoirs are available for instruction. Among the many valuable adjuncts to the university may be mentioned the Tate Library in the Victoria Building (with 50,000 vols.), the museums devoted to archæology, chemistry, zoology, engineering, botany, anatomy, pathology, materia medica, gynæcology, and hygiene. The academic year has three termsautumn, Lent, and summer. Motto, Hæc otia studia fovent.'

The corporation of Liverpool entered upon the work of technical education in 1890, under the Technical Education Act of 1889; and the Technical Instruction Committee, besides giving efficient instruction in their great central school, assisted by grants of money all the educational agencies in the city, from the elementary schools to the university. The work of the former Technical Instruction Committee is now absorbed in that of the Education Committee appointed under the Education Act of 1902. Within its purview is a nautical college for giving instruction of a practical character to officers and men engaged in the mercantile marine. The principal secondary schools of Liverpool are Liverpool College, the Liverpool Institute, St. Francis Xavier Schools, and St. Edward's College (the two latter Roman Catholic). Blackburne House (the college for girls, Grove St.), the Liverpool High School, and the East Liverpool High School, are the principal schools for girls. The Liverpool Institute, together with the Blackburne House Girls' School, and the School of Art, were transferred to the City Council in 1905.

for

The Liverpool Public Library was established in 1852, under a local act. It contains in its reference department over 131,000 volumes, and is rich in works on the fine arts and on natural history. There are also nine branch lending libraries, which provide another 122,700 volumes readers. The Public Museum was the outcome of the extensive and important gift of the thirteenth Earl of Derby of the stuffed collection of animals formerly at Knowsley Hall. A few years later additional importance was given to the institution by the no less extensive and important collection of antiquities presented by Joseph Mayer. In 1877 the Walker Art Gallery was presented to the town by Sir A. B. Walker. The annual exhibitions of works by living artists vie in merit and popularity with those of the Royal Academy.

The electric lighting and electric street railway systems of Liv

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erpool are among the largest and most successful undertakings of the kind in Britain. There are numerous parks and public gardens, including, besides the larger parks, some forty recreation grounds and enclosures, comprising altogether some 838 acres. The first public establishment of wash-houses for the poor i England took place in Liverpool on May 28, 1842.

Liverpool is well supplied with water, which is excellent in quality and abundant in quantity. Its main sources of supply are from Rivington (Lancashire) and Vyrnwy (N. Wales).

Amongst architectural features the first place is given to St. George's Hall. This modern basilica is of the Corinthian order of architecture, and possesses a dignity, refinement, and style which makes it one of the finest buildings of the classical Renaissance. The town hall is also in the Classic style, as are most of the public buildings of the city. The municipal offices form imposing buildings in the Palladian style. Among other important municipal buildings are the library and museum, erected by Sir William Brown; the Picton Reading Room, an extension of the library, erected by the city; the Walker Art Gallery, erected by Sir Andrew B. Walker; the technical schools; the Exchange Buildings, in the style of the Flemish Renaissance; the general post office, Victoria Street; the offices of the Royal Insurance Company; the Bank of Liverpool, Water Street; and Parr's Bank, North and South Wales Bank, and Adelphi Bank, all in Castle Street. Pop. (1901) 684,947. See Troughton's History of Liverpool_from the Earliest Period (1810), Blower's The Mersey, Ancient and Modern (1878), Picton's Memorials of Liverpool (1903), and Handbook Compiled for the Public Health Congress, ed. by Dr. E. W. Hope (1903).

(2.) Town, and early settlement, electorate Canterbury, on George's R., 22 m. w. of Sydney, N.S.W., Australia, in an agricultural district. Manufactures paper. Pop. 4,000. (3.) L. PLAINS, generally level tract of pastoral country, ten million acres in extent, in the N.E. of New South Wales (Co. Buckland), Australia. The Darling R. divides it from the Warrego district. The chief town is Tamworth. (4.) L. RANGE, part of the great Dividing Chain, N.S.W., Australia. Its highest point is Oxley's Peak, 4,500 ft.

Liverpool, CHARLES JENKINSON, FIRST EARL OF (1727-1808), English statesman. After distinguishing himself at Oxford, he entered Parliament (1761), where he became known as the leader

Liverworts

of the 'king's friends.' Secretary of State under Grenville, he was afterward Secretary for War in Lord North's administration (1778-82), and by reason of this office had much to do in shaping the course of military events during the final years of the Revolutionary War in the U. S. His last important post was the presidency of the Board of Trade, to which he was appointed by Pitt. He was created Earl of Liverpool in 1796. His valuable work, On the Conduct of Government respecting Neutral Nations (1758), was translated into several European languages.

Liverpool, ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON, SECOND EARL OF (1770-1828), English statesman, was educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford; entered Parliament (1790), afterward serving as a member of the India Board, and in 1801 became Foreign Secretary under Addington, in which capacity he concluded the treaty of Amiens. He was Home Secretary under Pitt and the Duke of Portland, and Secretary for War and the Colonies under Perceval. He became premier on the assassination of Perceval (1812). His ministry, which lasted until 1827, was an eventful one, covering the crisis of the Napoleonic wars and the subsequent settlement of Europe. He became unpopular through the increased taxes imposed by his ministry, and through the heavy hand with which he put down the frequent riots in which the general discontent found expression. His financial administration was, nevertheless, of value to the country, and his personal sincerity unquestionable. See Yonge's Life of Second Earl of Liverpool (1868).

Liversedge, par. and tn., Spen Valley div., W. Riding, Yorkshire, England, 3 m. N. w. of Dewsbury; manufactures woollen and cotton goods, iron, and machinery. Pop. (1901) 13,978.

Liverworts, the popular name given to the class of flowerless plants known as Hepaticæ from the shape of the vegetative parts. They are mostly dwarf plants, closely attached to the surface of damp rocks or wood; but some species are of larger and more erect growth. From the upper surface project minute funnels or stomata, and from the lower surface proceed unicellular rhizoids, which serve for purposes of attachment and absorption. By mere fission, propagation may be effected, as it may also be by means of clusters of gemmæ formed in special receptacles. In addition to these asexual methods of reproduction, male and female organs are borne on the surface of the thallus, and the