Lovering

painter in London, and at the same time made successful efforts in literature, his well-known song Rory O'More being written in 1826. Several plays, some novels especially Handy Andy (1842) and numerous songs, including The Angel's Whisper, followed in quick succession. He visited the U. S. and Canada in 1844 and gave entertainments and lectures which were extremely popular. See The Novels, Irish Legends, Plays, and Poems of Samuel Lover, with introduction by Roche (1902); also Bernard's Life of Samuel Lover (1874), and Symington's Samuel Lover: Sketch (1880).

a

Lovering, JOSEPH (1813-92), American mathematician, born at Boston, Mass. He graduated at Harvard University in 1833, in 1836 became an instructor in mathematics in that university and in 1838-89 was Ho'lis professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. He was an active member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Art, and the National Academy of Sciences, and was associated with Benjamin Peirce in the publication of the Cambridge Miscellany of Mathematics and Physics.

Low, SETH (1850), American educator and civil officer, was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and graduated (1870) at Columbia. He entered the business house of his father, a wealthy tea merchant, as a clerk, in 1875 became a partner, and retired from business in 1888. He was mayor of Brooklyn (1883-6), being elected and re-elected by the reform party, and effected many reforms in the city government. In 1890 he succeeded Dr. F. A. P. Barnard as president of Columbia College, and filled this position until 1901. His administration was marked by the transformation of the college into a university and its removal to the spacious site on Morningside Heights in New York, Seth Low himself contributing $1,000,000 for the construction of the university's splendid library. The College of Physicians and Surgeons was finally made a component part of the university, the Teachers College was brought in, and a School of Pure Science was established. Dr. Low was an unsuccessful independent candidate for the mayoralty of New York city in 1897, but polled a large vote. In 1901 he

was

elected mayor by a fusion vote, defeating the Tammany candidate, and he held the office during 1902-3. In this period he accomplished much toward the abolishment of municipal corruption in New York.

Low, WILL HICOCK (1853), American figure painter and il

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lustrator, born at Albany, N. Y. He studied figure painting with Gérôme and portraiture under Carolus-Duran. Afterward he joined the Barbazon coterie and painted there his 'Day of the Dead' (1877), one of his best

works. He returned to America in 1877 and became one of the founders of the Society of American Artists. For several years (1882-5) he had charge of the life classes at the Cooper Union, and later (1889-92) at the National Academy of Design, of which he was elected an Academician in 1890. The fruits of work under John LaFarge in glass-painting (1882-85) are seen in his ten windows for St. Paul's M. E. Church in Newark, N. J., and in many private houses. His mural decorations for the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (1892) and for the music room in the house of the late C. T. Yerkes of New York show grace of line and good color. Among his minor works are the diplomas of awards for the expositions of Chicago (1893) and St. Louis (1904). He received a silver medal for drawings at the Paris Exposition of 1889, and medals at Chicago, St. Buffalo, and Louis. His chief pictures, besides those mentioned, are: A portrait of Mme. Albaní (1877); 'Lady of the Empire' (1877); 'Chloe' (1882);

Telling the Bees' (1885); 'Aurora' (1894); 'Spring' (1895). Among his notable illustrations are those for Whittier's Skipper Ireson's Ride and for Keats's Lamia and Odes and Sonnets.

Total Pearl

Low Archipelago, PAUMOTU, or TUAMOTU, archipelago of about eighty low coral islands in the Pacific, to the E. of the Society Is., between lat. 14° and 24° S. and long. 135° and 149° w. area, about 350 sq. m. fisheries are a source of wealth. The group was discovered (1606), and was officially annexed to France (1881). Pop. about 7,000. Low Countries. See BELGIUM.

Lowe, SIR HUDSON (17691844), British general and govenor of St. Helena, born in Galway, joined the army (1787). He then filled various posts of responsibility, both as military commander and as civil administrator, till appointed custodian of the Emperor Napoleon (1815) and governor of St. Helena, both of which duties he discharged until the death of Napoleon (1821). Charges of inhumanity were brought against Lowe, but apparently without cause; for the strained relations which existed between him and his prisoner were due rather to tactlessness than to any lack of good intentions on the part of Lowe. See

Lowell

Memoir in Colburn's United Service Magazine (April and June 1844), Forsyth's Captivity of Napoleon at St. Helena (1853), Seaton's Sir Hudson Lowe and Napoleon (1898), and Rosebery's Napoleon, the Last Phase (1900).

Lowe, ROBERT. See SHER

BROOKE.

Lowell, city, Mass., one of the co. seats of Middlesex co., and fourth city of the state in population, 24 m. N.W. by N. of Boston, on the Merrimac R. at the junction of the Concord, and on the Bost. and Me. and the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. Rs. The site is picturesque and commands a view of the mountains of New Hampshire. Among the prominent buildings are the city hall, Memorial Hall, St. Anne's Church St. Peter's, the Colonial Building, and the great manufactories. Monument Square contains a monument to the memory of Ladd and Whitney, the first two men to fall in the Civil War. There are four bridges across the Merrimac and three across the Concord R. Lowell is one of the most important industrial cities of New England. The Pawtucket Falls supply valuable water power, and steam is also used. According to the Federal census of manufactures, there were, in 1900, 981 industrial establishments with an invested capital of $46,578,193, which produced goods worth $44,774,525. The leading articles were cotton'goods, $17,038,576; foundry and machine shop products, $4,258,047; woollen goods, $3,275,613; hosiery and knit goods, $3,148,110; patent medicines and compounds, $1,784,338; worsted goods, $1,413,652. The Lowell Textile School is considered the largest and best equipped school of its kind in the world. A state normal school is situated here, as well as Rogers Hall School for Girls. There are three hospitals, the Lowell, the St. John's, and the Lowell General Hospital. Lowell is a great centre of electric car traffic and Merrimac Square, the business centre of the city, is the transfer station for all lines. The city library, the Memorial building, has 60,000 volumes. Features of scenic interest are the beauties of the Merrimac and Concord, Fort Hill Park from which Boston lights and all the New England mountains are visible, Pawtucket Falls, General Butler's residence, and Christian Hill reservoir. A highly perfected system of locks and canals supplies the water power to the factories. Lowell was founded in 1822 and chartered as a city in 1837, and was incorporated as a town in 1826. The population is about one-third Irish and one-third French. Pop. (1905) 94,889. See Drake, History of Middlesex

Lowell

County (1880); Illustrated History of Lowell.

Lowell, ABBOT LAWRENCE (1856), American publicist, was born at Boston, Mass., and graduated at Harvard, 1877. He then studied law and graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1880. He practised law in Boston in 1880-97, when he was appointed lecturer in law, at Harvard. In 1900 he was advanced to the professorship of the science of government at Harvard. His publications include: Essays on Government (1889); Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (1896); and the Influence of Party Upon Legislation in England and America (1902). He also wrote in collaboration with Judge Francis C. Lowell, The Transfer of Stock in Corporations (1884); and in collaboration with Prof. H. Morse Stephens, Colonial Civil Service (1900).

of

Lowell, CHARLES (1782-1861), American clergyman, son John Lowell (1743-1802) and father of James Russell Lowell, was born in Cambridge, Mass., and graduated (1800) at Harvard. He studied theology at home and in Edinburgh, and after some time passed in travel became pastor of the West Church (Congregational) in Boston in 1806. This position he retained until his death, but had Dr. Cyrus A. Bartol as his associate after 1837 and preached but rarely from that year. Dr. Lowell was prominent as an Abolitionist. He published Occasional and Practical Sermons and various devotional volumes. During his term of service his church adopted Unitarian beliefs, but Mr. Lowell took no part in the TrinitarianUnitarian controversy of that time.

en

Lowell, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-64), American soldier, born in Boston, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1854, and gaged in iron manufacturing. In 1861 he became captain in a cavalry regiment and served on Gen. McClellan's staff until Nov., 1862, when he organized the Second Massachusetts cavalry, of which he became colonel in April, 1863. He was actively engaged in Virginia until mortally wounded at the battle of Cedar Creek (Oct. 19, 1864). He died on the day after the battle. See Bartol's The Purchase by Blood (1864); and Pierce's Harvard Memorial Biographies vi.

Lowell, EDWARD JACKSON (1845-94), American historian, grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell, was born in Boston, Mass., and graduated (1867) at Harvard. He studied for the law, and practised for a time in Boston, but gave up law for literature and devoted himself to historical

duced, during the War of 1812, the manufacture of cotton in this country, and with his brother-inlaw, Patrick T. Jackson, opened cotton factories at Waltham, Mass. Their movement led to the establishment of the city of Lowell, Mass., which was named in his honor, as a centre of cotton manufacture.

Lowell, JAMES RUSSELL (18191891), American poet and critic. He was born in the house called Elmwood, Cambridge, Mass., on Feb. 22, 1819, the son of Rev. Charles Lowell, of old New England family on both sides. At

of articles on "The Old English Dramatists' in the Boston Miscellany. He also projected and carried on for a short time, with Robert Carter, a magazine called the Pioneer. His first important and independent step, however, was not in literature but, characteristically, in public life. He allied himself definitely with the antislavery movement, in following which he wrote regularly for the Pennsylvania Freeman and afterwards for the Anti-Slavery Standard. He was married Dec. 26, 1844, to Maria White, whose sympathies were strongly in the same

Lowell

direction. In 1846 these interests came to a crisis with the Mexican War; in June of that year he published the first of the Biglow Papers in the Boston Courier. These satires, collected and published in 1848, are still the best known production of Lowell, the poet; other poems of his are more attractive or more poetic, but not so original and powerful. The Fable for Critics and Sir Launjal were published in the same year; the former an extraordinarily clever satire, and the latter a most attractive and charming poem. By the publication of his poems in two volumes, he quite established his position as a poet. He lived a happy family life at Elmwood in Cambridge and travelled abroad in 1851. In 1853, however, his wife died and early the next year his appointment to the chair of Belles Lettres at Harvard, was determined on. He had been for years a careful reader of European literature and now determined to go abroad to make some necessary studies. The winter of 1855-6 he spent in Dresden, in the spring he went to Italy, and in the summer he returned to Cambridge. A new epoch in his life may be said to have now opened, that of scholar and critic; he began college teaching and (in 1857) began to edit the Atlantic Monthly, just projected. In 1857 he married Miss Frances Dunlap. In 1861 he resigned the editorship of the Atlantic Monthly and in 1864, with Charles Eliot Norton, undertook the direction of the North American Review. The Civil War called forth his strongest sympathies: in the course of it he wrote a second series of Biglow Papers (published in 1867) and at the end wrote the Commemoration Ode for the dedication of Memorial Hall, at Harvard College. He had for some time been publishing essays of a literary and critical character, and in 1870 he began the publication of these in Among My Books, which was followed by My Study Windows in 1871. The appearance of these volumes gave Lowell the reputation by which he will be best remembered that of the essayist.

His powers as a poet, a scholar, a critic, a man of public interests, are all perceivable in these essays, but their chief characteristic is the rich quality of the man of literature. In 1872 he resigned the North American Review and went abroad, where he was warmly welcomed, especially in England, where he received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1873, and the LL.D. from Cambridge in 1874. Returning to America, he continued his work as professor, published Among My Books (second series), took some part in public affairs, and

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acted as poetical spokesman for his people in the more important centennial celebrations occurring in 1875 and 1876. In 1877 he was named United States minister to Spain, and in 1880 was transferred to England. His position in London was a constant indication of his very great reputation as a man of letters as well as a testimony to his great personal charm. He was certainly one of the most influential ministers who ever represented the United States in England. In February, 1885, Mrs. Lowell died, and in May he returned to America. The remaining years of his life were spent mainly in quiet retirement. He made visits to England in the summer (the last in 1889), supervised the publication of his works, wrote some articles and made some addresses of note, having naturally the character of the chief man of letters of America. He died on Aug. 12, 1891, at Elmwood. His reputation in his lifetime was very great, as a scholar, a poet, a critic, an essayist, and a representative of American ideas. As a scholar he was the inspiring humanist rather than the scientific worker. Much of his poetry belongs to the time that produced it, but the Biglow Papers and the Odes will endure. As a critic his work is not thought to have greatly affected general ideas. It is as an essayist and prose writer that he will probably retain his reputation as a man of letters of the first rank.

See his Letters, ed. Charles Eliot Norton (1894); Underwood's James Russell Lowell (1882), and The Poet and the Man: Recollec

tions and Appreciations (1893); James Russell Lowell and his Friend (1899); Scudder's Life in 2 vols. (1901), and shorter studies by E. E. Hale, Jr., (1899) and Ferris Greenslet (1905). A complete bibliography by G. W. Cooke is announced. The Riverside edition of his works in eleven volumes was published in 1890–

1891.

He

Lowell, JOHN (1743-1802), American statesman and judge, born at Newburyport, Mass. graduated at Harvard in 1760, and studied law. In 1762 he was admitted to the Massachusetts bar and practised law in Newburyport. He then turned his attention to politics, and in 1776 was elected to membership in the Provincial Assembly as a representative of his native town. In 1780 he became a member of the Mass. constitutional convention and was instrumental in having inserted the famous clause declaring that 'All men are born free and equal,' with the view of abolishing slavery in the state. He was elected a member of the Continental Congress in 1781, and in the following year

Lowell

became a judge of the court to which appeals lay from the admiralty courts of the states represented in Congress. In 1784 he was a member of the commission which established the boundary line between N. Y. and Mass. President Washington appointed him to a judgeship in the District Court in Mass. in 1789, and in 1801 he was promoted to the position of Chief Justice of the first United States Circuit Court.

Lowell, JOHN (1769-1840), American controversialist, born at Newburyport, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1786, was admitted to the bar in 1789, and became prominent as a lawyer and horticulturist. A strong Federalist, he wrote about twenty-five pamphlets attacking Republican policies and doctrines, with such titles as A Candid Comparison of the Washington and the Jefferson Administration_(1810).

Lowell, JOHN (1799-1836), American philanthropist, son of Francis Cabot Lowell, was born in Boston, Mass., and entered Harvard, but did not graduate on account of ill-health. Much of his life was passed in foreign travel, although he engaged in business for several years. By his will, made in Egypt, he left $250,000

as a foundation for free lectures in Boston on religion, science, and the arts. This foundation, known as the Lowell Institute, has since provided annual lectures on these subjects by distinguished specialists from all over the world. Mr. Lowell died at Bombay, India. See Everett's Memoir (1840).

Lowell, JOSEPHINE SHAW (1843-1905), American philanthropist, sister of Col. Robert Gould Shaw, was born in West Roxbury, Mass., and received her education in Boston, New York, and Europe. In 1863 she was married to Charles Russell Lowell (q.v.). After the deaths of her husband and brother in the Civil War, Mrs. Lowell devoted herself to charitable work. She removed to New York city, where she helped the formation of the Charity Organization Society. In 1876 she was appointed by Gov. Tilden to the State Board of Charities, and was reappointed and served until 1889. The remainder of her life was passed in active philanthropic work, particularly prison reform. She published Public Relief and Private Charity (1884) and Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation (1893).

Lowell, MARIA WHITE (182153), American author, was born at Watertown, Mass., where her father was a 'squire' of some degree. Her brother, W. A. White. became an intimate friend of James Russell Lowell, and in 1844 Miss White was married to the latter. She was noted for the

Lowell

great beauty of her person and character, was an ardent Abolitionist, and wrote herself and inspired her husband to write against slavery. She was favored with a delicate poetic fancy, which shows itself in the posthumous volume of her Poems: Edited by J. R. Lowell (1855).

Lowell, PERCIVAL (1855), American astronomer and author, was born in Boston, Mass., and graduated (1876) at Harvard. He visited Japan in 1883, returning thence with a Korean embassy to the U. S., and afterward passed a winter at the Korean capital. His impressions of the Orient are given in Choson: The Land of the Morning Calm (1885), The Soul of the Far East (1886), and Occult Japan (1894). In 1894 he established the Lowell Observatory at Flagstaff, Ariz., of which he became director, making personal observations, particularly in connection with Mars and that planet's markings. He contributed numerous articles to the scientific periodicals on this and other astronomical subjects, and published reports of the observatory and Mars (1895) and The Solar System (1903).

Lowell, ROBERT TRAILL SPENCE (1816-91), American clergyman and author, brother of James Russell Lowell, born in Boston and graduated at Harvard in 1833. He studied medicine in the Harvard Medical School, but turned to the church and was ordained in 1843 in Bermuda by Bishop Spencer, whose chaplain he became. After a brief station in Newfoundland, he organized a church in Newark, N. J., in 1847, and in 1859 was called to Christ Church, Duanesburg, N. Y. In 1870 he became head master of St. Mark's School, Southborough, Mass., and in 1873 Latin professor in Union College. His books are: The New Priest in Conception Bay (1858); Fresh Hearts, and Other Poems (1860); Anthony Brade (1874); A Story or Two from an Old Dutch Town (1878).

Lower Austria. See AUSTRIA, LOWER.

Lowestoft, munic. bor., seapt., and bathing resort in Suffolk, England, 10 m. s. of Yarmouth. It is a rising and fashionable place, near the Norfolk Broads, with excellent yachting accommodation and a bracing climate. The town comprises two parts. The north, or old town, is situated on a cliff, below which is a tract called The Denes, with golf links, bordering the shore. St. Margaret's Church is a beautiful 14th-century edifice with earlier tower. Kirkley has a fine esplanade and sea-wall connecting with the south (promenade) pier. A fine esplanade has also been constructed above the

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Denes at the N. end of the town. The fisheries are important. Pop. (1901) 29,842. Off the coast, on June 3, 1665, a great naval battle took place between an English ficet under James, Duke of York, and a Dutch fleet under Obdam van Wassenaer. Obdam was killed, and the Dutch were driven to their ports.

Lowland in general means land which does not rise more than from 600 to 1,000 ft. above the sea. Its limit is usually represented on orographic maps by the 600 ft. or 200 metre contour lines. Accepting the 200 metre (660 ft.) line, and excluding Antarctic lands, the area of lowlands is nearly three-tenths of the total land surface, or 15 million sq. m. This is on the N. of the mid-world mountain system in Eurasia, and E. of the Pacific mountain system in America. There is little in Africa (15 per cent.), mainly in the N. and w. of the Sahara, and 55 per cent. in Europe, while in Australia the lowland E. of the Eastern highlands is extensive, and raises the percentage

to 36.

All kinds and ages of rocks can be found in the lowlands. They may be composed of ancient crystalline rocks, as in the Baltic and Hudson Bay regions; of flat Palæozoic rocks, as in the tabular plains of Russia and N. America adjoining these; or of recent deposits, as in the marshy lands of Western Siberia or the coastal swamps of America, in growing deltas, such as that of the Nile or the Mississippi, in marine accumulations on rising coastal areas, as in low-lying Florida and the coastal plain to the N., and in desert areas of wind-bared or sand-covered surface, as in Turan and the lower parts of the Sahara. They may also be underlain by rocks greatly faulted or folded, or both, as in the lowlands of Belgium.

The lowlands of the world present every variety of vegetation, according to the climatic regions in which they are found, and also every phase of economic development. They are among the leastpeopled (e.g. low-lying tundra and desert) and the most denselypopulated parts of the globe, such as portions of China, the valley of the Ganges, and some of the provinces of Belgium, and the Netherlands. Where the climate and drainage permit, they are the most favored lands, being easy to exploit and to traverse.

Lowndes, LLOYD, JR. (18451905), American politician and capitalist, was born at Clarksburg, Harrison co., Va., and graduated (1865) at Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa. The son of a wealthy father, he studied law

Lowry

at the University of Pennsylvania and practised successfully at Cumberland, Md., where he became prominent in banking and mining circles. He was elected to the U. S. Congress in 1872, and was governor of Maryland from 1896 to 1900, the first Republican to hold that office for thirty years.

Lowndes, RAWLINS (17221800), American patriot, born in the West Indies, but taken to Charleston, S. C., at an early age. He was admitted to the bar and became a member of the court of Common Pleas. A decision releasing a printer who had been arbitrarily imprisoned for publishing the proceedings of the Council and another in 1766 denying the necessity of using stamped paper attracted much attention. In 1776 he was one of eleven who drew up the state constitution, and in 1778 became president of the state. In 1780 he became a prisoner of the British. After the close of the Revolution he sat in the state legislature. He strongly opposed the adoption of the constitution of the U. S. because of its centralizing tendencies. See Chase, Lowndes of South Carolina (1876).

Lowndes, WILLIAM (JONES) (1782-1822), American statesman, born in St. Bartholomew's Parish, Colleton co., S. C., the son of Rawlins Lowndes. He was partially educated in England and at the college in Charleston. Though admitted to the bar in 1804, he did not practise on account of illhealth. From 1806 to 1810 he was a member of the legislature, and was a member of Congress from 1811 to 1822, when he resigned. His learning, ability, and sound judgment gave him prominent place, and his unfailing courtesy made him popular. He twice refused the French mission, and in 1821 he was nominated for president in preference to Calhoun by the S. C. legislature. While on his way to Europe he died at sea. See Ravenel's Life and Times of Wm. Lowndes (1901).

a

Lowrie, WALTER (1784-1868), American senator and missionary worker, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and came to Pennsylvania as a child. He studied for, but did not enter, the ministry, served in the Pa. legislature for several terms, and represented Pa. in the U. S. Senate from 1819 to 1825. He was subsequently secretary of the Senate until 1836, when he accepted the secretaryship of the Western Foreign Missionary Society, afterward the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, holding this position until shortly before his death. Three of his sons were missionaries.

Lowry, ROBERT (1826-99), American Baptist clergyman, born in Philadelphia and gradu

Low Sunday

ated at Lewisburg University, Pa., in 1854. After holding pastorates in New York and Brooklyn, he became professor of belles-lettres at Lewisburg, but resigned in 1875 to accept a call from the church in Plainfield, N. J. He wrote and composed the music for several hymns and compiled the Chapel Melodies (1868) and the Chatauqua Carols (1878).

Low Sunday, the Sunday after Easter; also called Dominica in albis depositis, because those who had been baptized on Easter Eve then first laid aside their white robes. The name Low Sunday was given partly to contrast it with the high festival to which it succeeded, partly perhaps because, as the octave of Easter Day, it was considered a continuation of the feast, though in a lower degree.

Lowth, ROBERT (1710-87), English ecclesiastic and scholar, born at Buriton, Hampshire; was appointed to the chair of poetry at Oxford (1741), resigning on his appointment to the archdeaconry of Winchester (1750). His short tenure of the see of St. Davids (1766) was followed a few months later by his presentation to that of Oxford, whence he was transferred to London (1777). In 1783 he declined the primacy. His De Sacra Poesi Hebrærum Pralectiones Academica (translated in 1787 as Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews), published in 1753, marked a new departure in the application to Biblical poetry of the ordinary criteria of literary criticism. Among his other works are a Life of William of Wykeham (1758); an excellent Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762), often reprinted; and Isaiah: a New Translation (1778). An edition of his Popular Works appeared in 1843. See Life and Writings of Bishop Lowth (1787), and Memoir by Hall in Lowth's Sermons and Other Remains (1834).

Lowther, JAMES WILLIAM (1855), Speaker of the House of Commons, first entered Parliament as member for Rutland (1883). He accepted office as under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1891; was elected chairman of Committee of Ways and Means and deputy-speaker in 1895, and became Speaker, June, 1905, on the retirement of Mr. Gully.

Lowville, vil., N. Y., co. seat of Lewis co., 26 m. s.E. of Watertown, near the Black R., on the Black R. Canal, and the Ñ. Y. C. and H. R. R. R. It is a shipping point for agricultural and dairy produce and maple sugar. The manufactures include furniture, asbestos, caskets, fancy cheese, boxes, vises, iron implements, etc. It is the seat of Lowville Academy (1808), and has a public library.

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The first settlement was made in 1797. Pop. (1905) 2,519.

Loyal Americans of the Republic. A fraternal organization founded in 1896. It has 750 subordinate assemblies with a total membership of 27,600. It disburses about $125,000 annually in benefits, with a total disbursement since its organization of $1,284,329. Secretary, H. D. Cowan, Springfield, Ill. See FRATERNAL BENEFICIARY Orders.

ances,

In Loyalists, or TORIES. American history, those who, immediately before and during the Revolutionary War, remained loyal to Great Britain. Their number is unknown, but John Adams estimated that about onethird of the inhabitants of the revolting colonies were Loyalists. In general they represented the characteristically conservative element, and among them were to be found, more especially, colonial office-holders, the more prosperous merchants and business men, representatives of the professional, and cultivated classes-in short, the official, industrial and intellectual aristocracy-to whom were added a number of timeservers who believed that the colonists would inevitably lose and who wished to be on the winning side. Of all the Loyalists a considerable proportion undoubtedly believed that the colonies had real and great grievand that the British government, in many of its acts, was clearly oppressive; but they advocated conciliation and compromise, they were attached to the British crown, they abhorred civil war or rebellion, and, when driven by the course of events unequivocally to take sides, they adhered to the king rather than to their fellow-colonists. They had able spokesmen, who, before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, engaged vigorously in controversy with Whig or Patriot writers. The body of Loyalist literature is large, and many of the Loyalist pamphlets have great controversial merit. Even before the outbreak of hostilities, Loyalists were sometimes silenced or driven from the communities in which they lived, and during the war stringent laws were adopted against them in all the colonies, their property was often confiscated, and they were subjected to physical violence, kept under close surveillance, or forcibly expelled. Many took an active part in the war, either by forming associated bands or by entering the regular British army -the total number of Loyalist soldiers has been estimated at 50,000-and the warfare between them and their Whig fellowcolonists was peculiarly bitter, some of the worst atrocities of the

Loyola

war being committed by Tory bands serving on the frontier in association with the Indians. By the treaty of peace (1783) Congress agreed to recommend to the various states the revision of their confiscation laws and in general a cessation of the policy of extreme severity in the treatment of the Loyalists, but in fact little moderation was shown, and those Loyalists who still remained in the U.S., many of them within the British lines, migrated for the most part to Canada and New Brunswick, to England, or to the West Indies. Consult Van Tyne, The Loyalists of the American Revolution (1902); Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vol. 1897); Ryerson, Loyalists of America, 1620-1816 (2 vol. 1880); and Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution (2 vol. 1864).

Loyal Legion of the United States, MILITARY ORDER OF. An organization formed in 1865 by officers of the army, navy and marine corps who took part in the Civil War. It has three classes: commissioned officers who served in the war; eldest male descendants; and civilians who rendered important services to the Union during the war. It has a total membership of about 10,000 in 21 commanderies, each of which. represents a state, with one com- . mandery representing the District of Columbia. Recorder, Lieut.-Col. John P. Nicholson, Philadelphia.

Loyalty Islands, group of islands consisting of three large and numerous small islands, in the S. Pacific, forming a chain parallel to and included in the French administration of New Caledonia, at a distance of 60 m. E. of that island. The larger islands are Uea, Lifu, and Mare. Total area, 800 sq. m. The islands grow bananas and export sandal wood. Pop. (end of 1901) 14,800.

Loyola, IGNATIUS DE-INIGO LOPEZ DE RECALDE-(c. 14921556), the founder of the Jesuits, born of a noble family in the Spanish province of Guipuzcoa. Like three of his elder brothers, he followed the career of arms; but the perusal of the Life of Christ by Ludolphus, and of certain lives of the saints, induced him to forsake the world and to consecrate himself to the service of religion. He spent ten months in a cave near Manresa, practising terrible austerities, and here he composed the famous book of Spiritual Exercises, which was to prove so powerful an influence in the training of his followers. It was probably also at this time that the idea began to take shape in his mind of recruiting in the cause of Jesus Christ a regiment