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Man

form a regular, uninterrupted, horseshoe-shaped series, the canines being small in both sexes, and not protruding.. In connection with the upright position the skeleton shows a number of minor peculiarities; thus, the vertebral column presents a characteristic sigmoid flexure, only indicated in the apes; the lower limbs are proportionately much longer; the great toe is long and strong, and in the adult is incapable of being opposed to the other toes. Again, the heel is better developed than in any anthropoid, and the foot has been so modified that it can be placed flat upon the ground. We may say concisely that, from the zoological standpoint, man differs from the anthropoids in (1) his adaptation to the erect position and the terrestrial habitat, in (2) his greater brain development, and in (3) the very fully developed social instinct. Το the zoologist there can be no reasonable doubt that he has arisen from an anthropoid stock or (mainly) arboreal habitat.

Although after infancy the upright position is the one habitually adopted by man, yet it is a position which he can only maintain for a relatively short period without fatigue. This seems inexplicable, save on the assumption that the position is a recent acquisition. Another interesting point is the presence of a separate tibia and fibula in the lower limb. The persistence of so primitive and apparently so useless a structure as a free fibula can only be explained on the supposition that it is an inheritance from an arboreal ancestor, to whom the free movement of the ankle-joint rendered possible by its presence was a necessity in climbing. The well-developed clavicles and some associated peculiarities of the scapula can, similarly, only be explained on the assumption that man is descended from a climbing ancestor. There are indeed many indications of close affinity with the anthropoid ape both in the human fetus before birth and in the infant at birth. Thus, the sole of the foot at birth is inturned, the vertebral column does not then display the characteristic curves, the foot possesses a power of prehension of which the later condition affords no trace, and so on.

In his five fingers and five toes, in his separate radius and ulna and tibia and fibula, in his clavicles, in the structure of his teeth, man is primitive in structure still shows relation to the insectivore stock from which he is lineally developed. It is possible that the common ancestor of man and the large anthropoids was a form related to the living

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gibbons, but as yet there is no fossil evidence of the existence of such a form, and we have practically no knowledge of the pre-human ancestors of man. The recent discovery by Dubois in Java of a portion of a skull and a femur, believed to belong to a hitherto unknown form, to which he gave the name of Pithecanthropus erectus, has as yet done little to bridge the gap in man's ancestry. In the absence of evidence of a direct kind, we can only reason from analogy as to the probable course of evolution. Anyway, it is the social instinct which has played the predominant part.

As to the date of origin of man nothing definite can be said. The first clear indications of his existence anywhere on the earth are found in the deposits of the Glacial Period. More than this: the remains found in beds of Glacial age in Europe (bones, tools, etc.), in Asia (tools, but not bones), in America (tools, bones), and in Africa (tools), all indicate a race at approximately the same stage of civilization, if it may be so called.

The men of the Glacial Period fall into two groups, according as their implements are rough and unpolished (Palæolithic type) or smooth and polished (Neolithic type). Of the Palæolithic skulls found in Europe, the oldest is believed to be the Neanderthal or Spy type, which shows a number of pithecoid characters, the forehead being low and retreating, the brow ridges prominent; and the stature apparently short; nevertheless, the Spy man definitely human, and in no sense a transitional form.

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As regards the races of men, there has been much discussion as to whether or not all are to be regarded as forming one species. The view that there is but one species is supported by the fact that the progeny of mixed marriages shows no obvious diminution of fertility, as witness the numerous races of half-castes found in different parts of the globe.

The degree of pigmentation of skin, hair, and iris, when taken in conjunction with the characters of the hair, is of great importance in classification. Broca recognizes no fewer than thirty-four shades of color in the human skin, but it may be sufficient here to point out that these are all variants of the following four colors-white, yellow, brown, black (or dark-skinned). As regards the iris, the blue or gray eyes found in fair-skinned Europeans are the rarest shades, all other peoples having dark eyes. The chief types of hair are the straight (e.g. that of the Chinese),

Man

the wavy (common in Europeans), the frizzy (in Australians), and the woolly (as in negroes). Other very important characters in classification are the shape of the skull and the form of the bones. In the article ETHNOLOGY will be found a summary classification of the races of man, based upon the above and some other char

acters.

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Apart from the physical characters of man discussed above, there are certain universal social characteristics which must be mentioned. One of these is the love of ornament. It appears to be a well-established fact that ornament precedes dress. Though some races go entirely unclothed, it is doubtful whether any are totally devoid of personal ornaments. Another widespread if not universal characteristic man is the habit of domesticating animals. The earliest animal to be domesticated seems to have been the dog, which was tamed by Neolithic man. It is often said that there are three great stages in culture, man being first a hunter; then, as he learns to domesticate animals, he becomes a nomad, following the natural migrations of his flocks; finally, with the use of draught animals, he becomes an agriculturist. See ANTHROPOLOGY. Consult Darwin's Descent of Man (1888), Huxley's Man's Place in Nature (1858), Topinard's Anthropology (trans. 1890), Duckworth's Morphology and Anthropology (1905), Deniker's Races of Man (1900).

Man, ISLE OF, in the Irish Sea, is 33 m. in length and 10 m. in breadth. High, rugged cliffs border the coast, pierced in several places by caves. A double or triple range of hills stretches south-westward through the island (Snaefell, 2,030 ft.). Nearly two thirds of the surface is under cultivation. Argentiferous lead is worked. The climate is remarkably equable, the annual range of temperature being only 17.1, as compared with 23.5 at Brighton. Myrtles, fuchsias, and other exotics flourish out of doors all the year round. There is a breed of tailless cats. The island is a much-frequented holiday resort. The principal towns are Douglas (the capital), Ramsey, Castletown, and Peel. Near St. John's is Tynwald Hill, formerly the seat of the Supreme Court. The island is rich in stone circles, sepulchral mounds, runic and other crosses; possesses Rushen Castle, a well-preserved mediæval fortress, and Peel Castle, formerly used as a state prison. It was known to the Romans as Mona, and repeatedly raided by Norsemen. In 1266 Scottish supremacy replaced Norwegian, but in 1290 the islanders

Manaar

placed themselves under English influence. In 1406 Sir John Stanley was granted the island, with the title of king. In 1765 the Duke and Duchess of Athole, who then held the island, agreed to alienate the sovereignty to the British crown for $350,000 and an annuity of $10,000. Their remaining claims were ceded in 1829 for a further sum of $2,080,000. The administration is vested in a lieutenant-governor representing the King, a council, and the elected House of Keys (twenty-four members). The episcopal designation is Sodor (Norse, Sudreyr = 'Southern') and Man. The Manx language, now almost extinct, is

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distant. Steamers ply on it. (2.) City, cap. of Nicaragua, on lake of same name. Among the notable buildings are the national palace, museum, and civic buildings. It was made the capital in 1851. Pop. 30,000.

Manahiki. See MANIHIKI. Manakin, the name given to a family (Pipride) of tropical American passerine birds. They are mostly small, thick-set birds, inhabiting forests where they flit about the branches after the fashion of tits. Their diet consists of fruit and seeds, mingled with insects. There are in all some seventy species.

Manaoag, pueb., Pangasinan

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Manatee

wide. It narrows to the N. into Palk Strait, from which it is separated by the islands of Manar and Rameswaram and the reef known as Adam's Bridge. The gulf is famous for its pearl fisheries.

Manasarowar (Tibetan, Tsomapham), sacred lake of S. W. Tibet, 15,285 ft. above sea-level, in the valley of the Brahmaputra, in 810 E. long. Its area is over 150 sq. m. To the N.W. is the sacred mountain of Kailas.

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Manasquan, bor. and watering-place, Monmouth co., N. J., 12 m. s. of Long Branch, 1 m. from the seashore, and on the Cent. R. R. of N. J. The Manasquan R. near by is noted for good angling. Pop. (1905) 1,636.

Manassas. See BULL RUN.

Manasseh, the elder son of Joseph, who, however, received from his father a blessing inferior to that of his brother Ephraim (Gen. 48). The tribe of Manasseh had settlements on both sides of the Jordan.

Manasseh Ben-Israel (160457), Jewish theologian and scholar, born in Lisbon; founded a Hebrew printing-press at Amsterdam (1626). He sought to gain admission for the Jews into England in the time of Cromwell (1655). Manasseh published Spes Israelis (1650), Vindicia Judaorum (1656), and De Creatione (1635).

Manatee (Manatus), one of the sea-cows or sirenians, formerly numerous in river-mouths and on nearby shores from Florida to Southern Brazil, and far up the large rivers of tropical S. America; few now remain north of Yucatan. Like the dugongs,

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Isle of Man.

a dialect of the Celtic. Area, 227 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 54,758. See A. W. Moore's A History of the Isle of Man (2 vols. 1900), The Constitution of the Isle of Man (1882), Hall Caine's The Little Man Island (1894), The Deemster (1887), The Manxman (1894), and W. T. Radcliffe's Ellan Vannin (1895).

Manaar. See MANAR.

Manacor, tn., Majorca, Balearic Is., Spain, 30 m. by rail E. of Palma; contains a palace of the ancient kings of Majorca, and is a bishop's see. Wine is exported. Pop. (1900) 12,408.

Managua. (1.) Lake in Nicaragua, Central America, 30 m. long by 16 m. wide, with an area of 438 sq. m. It drains into Lake Nicaragua (28 ft. lower), 4 m.

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Manaos, city, Brazil, cap. of Amazonas state, on the Rio Negro, 10 m. above its junction with the Amazon. It is connected with the U. S. and Europe by steamship lines. Large quantities of rubber are exported. The city is modern, well built, and possessing various educational institutions, and is growing rapidly. Pop. 40,000.

Manapla, pueb., Negros Occidental prov., Philippines, 27 m. N.E. of Bacolor, near mouth of river of same name. It is a telegraph and military station. Pop. (1903) 10,123.

Manar, or MANAAR, GULF OF, inlet of Indian Ocean, between Ceylon and India, nearly 150 m.

Manatee.

manatees are purely vegetarian in diet. A full-grown manatee is about eight feet long, and has a somewhat fishlike body, with a broad, flattened tail, a blunt muzzle, with a very mobile upper lip, minute eyes, and a finely wrinkled skin, covered with very delicate hairs. The fore limbs form paddles, as in the dugong, but except in one species, they bear three minute nails near their extremities. There is very free movement at shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The special peculiarity of the manatee is found in

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1. Ramsey. 2. Tynwald Hill and St. John's Church. 3. Kirk Braddon. 4. Laxey Wheel. 5. Peel Castle. 6. Douglas. (Photos by Frith.)

Manbhum

the cleft upper lip, the parts of which have been compared in their manner of action to the mandibles of a caterpillar. Other peculiarities are the presence of only six vertebræ in the neck, the rudimentary nature of the incisor teeth, and the numerous (eleven) cheek teeth, which have square crowns with transverse ridges. Only about six of these teeth are in use at one time, and they are moved forward and shed when worn, much as in the elephant. Manatees are hunted for their oil and hides. They are easily tamed. Only one young one is born at a time.

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and Sancho Panza belonged to this district.

Manche, maritime dep., N.W. France. The N.E. coast is low, and the w.shore inhospitable, the only harbor being Granville. Around the Bay of St. Michael, to the s. of Granville, is a marshy tract. The peninsula of Cotentin forms the N. part of the department. To the N. is the deep bay of Cherbourg. Hemp, fruit, beetroot, and cereals are cultivated. Cider is manufactured. Area, 2,289_sq. m. Pop. (1901) 491,372. Cap. St. Lô.

Manchester, parlia. and munic. bor., city (lord mayor since

Manchester

water supply is in part derived from Lake Thirlmere in Cumberland, nearly 100 miles distant. Few English towns are better supplied with public parks, the latest acquisition being Heaton Park, 693 acres in extent. Manchester was the first town in England to adopt the Free Libraries Act. The Chetham Library was founded in 1653 by Humphrey Chetham. Mention should also be made of the Christie Library at Owens College, and of the John Rylands Library, which includes the Althorp Library. The city possesses an excellent school of technology,

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Manbhum, dist., Chota Nagpur, div. of Bengal, India, with an area of 4,147 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 1,301,364. Coal is mined. The capital is Purulia.

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Manby, GEORGE WILLIAM (1765-1854), English inventor, born at Denver, Norfolk. invented a life-saving apparatus for shipwrecks, tried at Yarmouth (1808), for which he received grants from Parliament. He also gave his attention to lifeboats, and to life-saving apparatus for fires and for ice accidents.

Mancha, LA, dist. s. of New Castile, Spain, now included in provs. of Albacete and Ciudad Real. It produces a light red wine called Val de Penas, and is noted for its mules. Don Quixote

1893), co. bor., the seat of a bishopric since 1847, and of a university since 1880, in Lancashire, England, 183 m. N.w. of London and 32 m. E.N.E. of Liverpool. It has access for sea-going vessels by means of the Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.), opened in 1894. Manchester is essentially a modern town. It is the leading city in the world in the textile industry. It is chiefly engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton, and in the bleaching, printing, and making up of 'Manchester goods.' There are also a vast number of engineering works. The shipping houses of Manchester export cottons, silk and woollen goods, steam, gas, and electrical machinery, chemicals, india-rubber, iron, steel, and copper goods. The

school of art, the Manchester grammar school (founded in 1515), the Hulme grammar school, and the Manchester high school for girls. The art gallery contains a noteworthy collection of pictures. The town hall (1877) is one of the finest in the kingdom, and contains decorated panels by Madox Brown. The Free Trade Hall was erected on the site of the Peterloo massacre in 1856, to commemorate the victory of the Anti-Corn Law League; it is here the Hallé concerts are given. Pop. (1901) 543,969.

MANCHESTER COLLEGE was founded in Manchester in 1786, and removed to Oxford in 1893. It exists for the purpose of promoting the study of philosophy, theology, and religion, without

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