The first permanent settlement here was established in 1786; | the township of St Albans (pop. in 1900, 1715) was incorporated in 1859, and the larger part of it was chartered as the city of St Albans in 1897. On the 19th of October 1864 Lieut. Bennett H. Young led from Canada about twenty-five un-uniformed Confederate soldiers in a raid on St Albans. They looted three banks, wounded several citizens, one mortally, and escaped to Canada, where Young and twelve others were arrested and brought to trial. But they were never punished, and even the $75,000 which had been taken from them on their arrest was returned to them. Later, however, the Canadian government refunded this amount to the banks. In 1866 and again in 1870 the Fenians made St Albans a base for attacks on Canada, and United States troops were sent here to preserve neutrality.

SAINT ALBIN, ALEXANDER CHARLES OMER ROUSSELIN DE CORBEAU, COMTE DE (1773-1847), French politician, was born in Paris, of a noble Dauphinois family, and was educated at the Collège d'Harcourt. He embraced the revolutionary ideas with enthusiasm. As civil commissioner at Troyes he was accused of terrorism by some, and by the revolutionary tribunal of moderation. He was imprisoned for a short time in 1794. On his release the Citoyen Rousselin entered the ministry of the interior, and under the Directory he became secretary-general, and then civil commissioner of the Seine. Attached to the party of Bernadotte, he was looked on with suspicion by the imperial police, and during the later years of the empire spent his time in retirement at Provence. During the Hundred Days, however, he served under Carnot at the ministry of the interior. Under the Restoration he defended Liberal principles in the Constitutionnel, of which he was the founder. Although Louis Philippe had been his friend since the days of the Revolution, he accepted no office from the monarchy of July. He retired from the Constitutionnel in 1838, and died on the 15th of June 1847. His chief works deal with the soldiers of the Revolution. They are : Vie de Lazare Hoche (2 vols., 1798); Notice historique sur le général Marbot (1800); M. de Championnel (1860); and notices of others posthumously published by his son, Hortensius de Saint Albin, as Documents relatifs à la Révolution Française . . (1873).

ST ALDEGONDE, PHILIPS VAN MARNIX, HEER VAN (1538-1598), Dutch writer and statesman, was born at Brussels, the son of Jakob van Marnix, baron of Pottes. He studied theology under Calvin and Beza at Geneva and, returning to the Netherlands in 1560, threw himself energetically into the cause of the Reformation, taking an active part in the compromise of the nobles in 1565 and the assembly of St Trond. He made himself conspicuous by issuing a pamphlet in justification of the iconoclasts who devastated Flanders in 1566, and on Alva's arrival next year had to fly the country. After spending some time in Friesland and in the Palatinate he was in 1570 taken into the service of William, prince of Orange, and in 1572 was sent as his representative to the first meeting of the States-general assembled at Dordrecht. In 1573 he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at Maaslandsluys, but was exchanged in the following year. He was sent as the representative of the insurgent provinces to Paris and London, where he in vain attempted to secure the effective assistance of Queen Elizabeth. In 1578 he was at the diet of Worms, where he made an eloquent but fruitless appeal for aid to the German princes. Equally vain were his efforts in the same year to persuade the magistrates of Ghent to cease persecuting the Catholics in the city. He took a conspicuous part in arranging the Union of Utrecht, and in 1583 was chosen burgomaster of Antwerp. In 1585 he surrendered the city, after a 13 months' siege, to the Spaniards. Violently attacked by the English and by his own countrymen for this act, 'he retired from public affairs and, save for a mission to Paris in 1590, lived henceforth in Leiden or on his estate in Zeeland, where he worked at a translation of the Bible. He died at Leiden on the 15th of December 1598.

St Aldegonde, or Marnix (by which name he is very commonly known), is celebrated for his share in the great development of Dutch literature which followed the classical period represented by such writers as the poet and historian Pieter Hooft, Of his works the best known is the Roman Bee-hive (De roomsche byen-korf), published in 1569 during his exile in Friesland, a bitter satire on the faith and

practices of the Roman Catholic Church. This was translated or adapted in French, German and English. As a poet, St Aldegonde is mainly known through his admirable metrical translation of the Psalms (1580), and the celebrated Wilhelmus van Nassauwe, one of the two officially recognized national anthems of Holland, is also ascribed to him. His complete works, edited by Lacroix and Quinet, were published at Brussels in 7 vols. (1855-1859), and his religious and theological writings, edited by Van Turenenbergen, at Paris, in 3 vols. (1871-1891).

See E. Quinet, Marnix de St Aldegonde (Paris, 1854); Juste, Vie de Marnix (The Hague, 1858); Frédéricq, Marnix en zijne nederlandsche geschriften (Ghent, 1882); Tjalma, Philips van Marnix, heer van Sint-Aldegonde (Amsterdam, 1896).

ST ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS BEACH, IST VISCOUNT (1837- ), English statesman, son of Sir Michael Hicks Beach, 8th Bart., whom he succeeded in 1854, was born in London in 1837, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated with a first class in the school of law and modern history. In 1864 he was returned to parliament as a Conservative for East Gloucestershire, the county in which his estates of Williamstrip Park were situated; and during 1868 he acted both as parliamentary secretary to the Poor Law Board and as under-secretary for the Home Department. In 1874 he was made chief secretary for Ireland, and was included in the Cabinet in 1877. From 1878 to 1880 he was secretary of state for the colonies. In 1885 he was elected for West Bristol, and the Conservative party having returned to power, became chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. After Mr Gladstone's brief Home Rule Ministry in 1886 he entered Lord Salisbury's next Cabinet again as Irish secretary, making way for Lord Randolph Churchill as leader of the House; but troubles with his eyesight compelled him to resign in 1887, and meanwhile Mr Goschen replaced Lord Randolph as chancellor of the exchequer. From 1888 to 1892 Sir Michael Hicks Beach returned to active work as president of the Board of Trade, and in 1895—Mr Goschen being transferred to the Admiralty-he again became chancellor of the exchequer. In 1899 he lowered the fixed charge for the National Debt from twenty-five to twenty-three millions-a reduction imperatively required, apart from other reasons, by the difficulties found in redeeming Consols at their then inflated price. When compelled to find means for financing the war in South Africa, he insisted on combining the raising of loans with the imposition of fresh taxation; and besides raising the income-tax each year, up to 1s. 3d. in 1902, he introduced taxes on sugar and exported coal (1901), and in 1902 proposed the reimposition of the registration duty on corn and flour which had been abolished in 1869 by Mr Lowe. The sale of his Netheravon estates in Wiltshire to the War Office in 1898 occasioned some acrid criticism concerning the valuation, for which, however, Sir Michael himself was not responsible. On Lord Salisbury's retirement in 1902 Sir Michael Hicks Beach also left the government. He accepted the chairmanship of the Royal Commission on Ritualistic Practices in the Church, and he did valuable work as an arbitrator; and though when the fiscal controversy arose he became a member of the Free-food League, his parliamentary loyalty to Mr Balfour did much to prevent the Unionist free-traders from precipitating a rupture. When Mr Balfour resigned in 1905 he was raised to the peerage as Viscount St Aldwyn.

ST AMAND-LES-EAUX, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, at the junction of the Elnon with the Scarpe, 22 m. S.E. of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 10,195; commune, 14,454. The town has a communal college and a school of drawing, and carries on iron-founding and the manufacture of porcelain, hosiery, chains and nails, but is better known for its mineral waters and mud baths. There are five springs; the water (67° to 77° F.) contains sulphate of lime and sulphur, and deposits white gelatinous threads without smell or taste. The mud baths are of benefit to patients suffering from rheumatism, gout and certain affections of liver and skin. Though from the discovery of statues and coins in the mud it is evident that these must have been frequented during the Roman period, it was only at the close of the 17th century that they again became of more than local celebrity. Of the abbey there remain

St Amand owes its name to St Amand, bishop of Tongres, who founded a monastery here in the 7th century. The abbey was laid waste by the Normans in 882 and by the count of Hainaut in 1340. The town was captured by Mary of Burgundy in 1477, by the count of Ligne, Charles V.'s lieutenant, in 1521, and finally in 1667 by the French. In 1793 St Amand was the headquarters of General Dumouriez in revolt against the Republican government. ST-AMAND-MONT-ROND, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Cher, 39 m. S. by E. of Bourges on the railway to Montluçon. Pop. (1906), 7711. The town stands at the foot of the hill of Mont-Rond on the right bank of the Cher, at its confluence with the Marmande and on the canal of Berry. A church of the period of transition from the Romanesque to Gothic style and several old houses are the more interesting buildings. The beautiful château of Meillant, built from 1500 to 1510 by the admiral Charles of Amboise, is 5 m. from St Amand; and the abbey of Noirlac, a fine type of Cistercian abbey with a 12th-century church, is 2 m. from the town.

The town grew up round a monastery founded by St Amand, a follower of St Columban, in the 7th century. Its ruined stronghold, on the hill of Mont-Rond, was of importance in the middle ages, and during the Fronde, when it belonged to the great Condé, was a centre of resistance to the royal troops, by whom it was taken after a siege of eleven months in 1652. It was for a time the property of Sully, who retired to it under the regency of Marie de' Medici. SAINT-AMANT, MARC ANTOINE DE GÉRARD, SIEUR DE (1594-1661), French poet, was born near Rouen in the year 1594. His father was a merchant who had, according to his son's account, been a sailor and had commanded for 22 years une escadre de la reine Élizabeth—a vague statement that lacks confirmation. The son obtained a patent of nobility, and attached himself to different great noblemen—the duc de Retz and the comte d'Harcourt among others. He saw military service and sojourned at different times in Italy, in Englanda sojourn which provoked from him a violent poetical attack on the country, Albion (1643)—in Poland, where he held a court appointment for two years, and elsewhere. Saint-Amant's later years were spent in France; and he died at Paris on the 29th of December 1661.

Saint-Amant has left a not inconsiderable body of poetry. His Albion and Rome ridicule set the fashion of the burlesque poem, a form in which he was excelled by his follower Paul Scarron. In his later years he devoted himself to serious subjects and produced an epic, Moïse sauvé (1653). His best work consists of Bacchanalian songs, his Débauche being one of the most remarkable convivial poems of its kind.

The standard edition is that in the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne, by M. C. L. Livet (2 vols. Paris, 1855).

SAINT ANDRÉ, ANDRÉ JEANBON (1749-1813), French revolutionist, was born at Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 25th of February 1749, the son of a fuller. Although his father was a Protestant, St André was brought up by the Jesuits at Marseilles and took orders. He turned Protestant, however, and became pastor at Castras and afterwards at Montauban. The proclamation of liberty of worship made him a supporter of the Revolution, and he was sent as deputy to the Convention by the department of Lot. He sat on the Mountain, voted for the death of Louis XVI. and opposed the punishment of the authors of the September massacres. In July 1793 he was president of the Convention, entered the Committee of Public Safety the same month and was sent on mission to the Armies of the East. On the 20th of September 1793 he obtained a vote of one hundred million francs for constructing vessels, and from September 1793 to January 1794 reorganized the military harbours of Brest and Cherbourg. In May 1794 he took part with Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse in a fight with the English. Finally, after a mission in the south, which lasted from July 1794 to March 1795 and in which he showed great moderation, he was arrested on the 28th of May 1795, but was released by the amnesty of the year IV. He was then appointed consul at Algiers and Smyrna (1798), was kept prisoner by the Turks for three years, and subsequently became prefect of the department of Mont-Tonnerre (1801) and commissary-general of the three

on the 10th of December 1813.

See Lévy-Schneider, Le Conventionnel Jeanbon St André (Paris, 1901).

SAINT ANDRÉ, JACQUES D'ALBON, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1505– 1562), French soldier and favourite of Henry II. of France. He was made marshal of France, governor of Lyonnais and ambassador in England. He served with great bravery against the emperor Charles V. in 1552. In 1557 he was taken prisoner at the battle of Saint Quentin, but was released the following year, and took part in negotiating the peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. After the death of Francis II. he formed in 1561 with the constable de Montmorency and Francis, duke of Guise, an alliance known as "the triumvirate" against the Protestants and the queen-mother. He perished at the battle of Dreux by the hand of a private enemy.

The

ST ANDREWS, a city, royal burgh, university town and seaport of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 7621. It is situated on a bay of the North Sea, 12 m. S.E. of Dundee by the North British railway, via Leuchars junction. It occupies a plateau of sandstone rock about 50 ft. high, on the north breaking off in precipitous cliffs in which the sea has worn numerous caves. The Eden enters St Andrews Bay to the north-west of the Links; and Kinness Burn, skirting the south side of the town, flows into the harbour. Almost the whole activity of St Andrews is centred in education and golf. There are a few small businesses, however, such as brewing, tanning, shipping and fishing. harbour, which is somewhat difficult of access, is protected by a pier 630 ft. long. The city has been called the "Mecca of Golf," partly because the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, founded in 1754, is the legislative authority of the game, and partly because its beautiful links-acquired by the town in 1894 and containing three courses-rank amongst the finest in the world. For the sake of the game, the bracing air and the bathing which the sandy beach of its bay affords, visitors are attracted to St Andrews in great numbers. The chief modern buildings include the town hall, the Templars' Hall, the Volunteer Hall, the Gibson Hospital, the Memorial Cottage Hospital, the Marine Biological Station (erected by Dr C. H. Gatty and opened in 1896), the Library and the Golf Club House, erected in 1853. The city was never surrounded by walls, and of its ancient The Martyrs' Memorial, gates the West Port only remains. erected to the honour of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, and other martyrs of the Reformation epoch, stands at the west end of the Scores on a cliff overlooking the sea.

The cathedral originated partly in the priory of Canons Regular founded by Bishop Robert (1122-1159). At the end of the 17th century some of the priory buildings were still entire and considerable remains of others existed, but nearly all traces have now disappeared, except portions of the priory wall and the archways, known as the Pends. The wall is about three-quarters of a mile long, and bears turrets at intervals. The 3rd marquis of Bute undertook the restoration of the priory, but the work was interrupted by his death in 1900. The cathedral was founded by Bishop Arnold (1159–1162), to supply more ample accommodation than was afforded by the church of dating from the 10th century, there remain the square tower, 108 ft. St Regulus. Of this church in the Romanesque style, probably in height, and the choir, of very diminutive proportions. On a plan of the town, about 1530, a chancel appears, and on seals affixed to the city and college charters there are representations of other buildings attached. The cathedral was constructed in the form of a Latin cross, the total length inside the walls being 355 ft., the length of the nave 200 ft., of the choir and lateral aisles 62 ft. and of the lady chapel at the eastern extremity 50 ft. The width at the transepts was 166 ft. and of the nave and choir 62 ft. The building was finished in the time of Bishop Lamberton (1297-1328), and was dedicated on the 5th of July 1318, the ceremony being witnessed by Robert Bruce. When entire it had, besides a central tower, six turrets, of which two at the east and one of the two at the west extremity, rising to a height of 100 ft., remain. The building was partly destroyed by fire in 1378, and the restoration and further and images in 1559. embellishment were completed in 1440. It was stripped of its altars It is believed that about the end of the 16th century the central tower gave way, carrying with it the north wall. Afterwards large portions of the ruins were taken away for building purposes, and nothing was done to preserve them until 1826. Since then it has been tended with scrupulous care, an interesting feature being the cutting out of the ground-plan in the turf. The principal portions extant, partly Norman and partly Early English, are the

east and west gables, the greater part of the south wall of the nave and the west wall of the south transept.

The picturesque ruins of the castle are situated on a rocky promontory much worn away by the sea. It is supposed to have been erected by Bishop Roger about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence, and was strongly fortified. It was frequently taken by the English, and after it had been captured by the Scottish regent, Andrew Murray, in 1336-1337, was destroyed lest it should fall into their hands. Towards the close of the century it was rebuilt by Bishop Trail in the form of a massive fortification with a moat on the south and west sides. James I. spent some of his early years within it under the care of Bishop Wardlaw, and it was the birthplace of James III. (1445). From a window in the castle

Cardinal Beaton witnessed the burning of George Wishart in front of the gate (1546), and in the same year he was murdered within it by a party of Reformers. The castle was taken from the conspirators by the French, among the prisoners captured being John Knox. Some years afterwards it was repaired by Archbishop Hamilton, but in less massive and less substantial form. By 1656 however, it had fallen into such disrepair that the town council ordered the materials to be used for repairing the pier. The principal remains are a portion of the south wall enclosing a square tower, the "bottle dungeon "- so named from its shape: it was a cell hewn out of the solid rock-below the north-west tower, the kitchen tower and a curious subterranean passage. The grounds have been laid

out as a public garden.

The town church, formerly the church of the Holy Trinity, was originally founded in 1112 by Bishop Turgot. The early building was a beautiful Norman structure, but at the close of the 18th century the whole, with the exception of little else than the square tower and spire, was re-erected in a plain and ungainly style. In this church John Knox first preached in public (May or June 1547), and in it, on June 4th 1559, he delivered the famous sermon from St Matthew xxi. 12, 13, which led to the stripping of the cathedral and the destruction of the monastic buildings. The church contains an elaborate monument in white marble to James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews (assassinated 1679). In South Street stands the lovely ruin of the north transept of the chapel of the Blackfriars' monastery founded by Bishop Wishart in 1274; but all traces of the Observantine monastery founded about 1450 by Bishop Kennedy have disappeared, except the well.

The great university of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone, Richard Cornwall, archdeacon of Lothian, William Stephen, afterwards archbishop of Dunblane, and a few others. A charter was issued in 1411 by Bishop Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440), who attracted the most learned men in Scotland as professors, and six bulls were obtained from Benedict XIII. in 1413 confirming the charter and constituting the society a university. The lectures were delivered in various parts of the town until 1430, when Wardlaw allowed the lecturers the use of a building called the Paedagogium, or St John's. St Salvator's College was founded and richly endowed by Bishop Kennedy in 1456; seven years later it was granted the power to confer degrees in theology and philosophy, and by the end of the century was regarded as a constituent part of the university. In 1512 St Leonard's College was founded by Prior John Hepburn and Archbishop Alexander Stewart on the site of the buildings which at one time were used as a hospital for pilgrims. In the same year Archbishop Stewart nominally changed the original Paedagogium into a college and annexed to it the parish church of St Michael of Tarvet; but its actual erection into a college did not take place until 1537, when it was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Assumption. The outline of the ancient structure is preserved, but its general character has been much altered by various restorations. It forms two sides of a quadrangle, the library and principal's residence being on the north and the lecture rooms and the old dining-hall on the The University library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889-1890. The lower hall in the older part of the building was used at times as a provincial meeting-place for the Scottish parliament. When the constitution of the colleges was remodelled in 1579 St Mary's was set apart for theology; and in 1747 the colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard were formed into the United College. The buildings of St Leonard's are now occupied as a school for girls. The college chapel is in ruins. The United College occupies the site of St Salvator's College, but the old buildings have been removed, with the exception of the college chapel,

now used as the university chapel and the parish church of St Leonard's, a fine Gothic structure, containing an elaborate tomb of Bishop Kennedy and Knox's pulpit; the entrance gateway, with a square clock tower (152 ft.); and the janitor's house with some class-rooms above. The modern building, in the Elizabethan style, was erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, was in 1890 affiliated to the university of St Andrews. This arrangement was set aside by the House of Lords in 1895, but a reaffiliation took place in 1897. In 1887-1888 a common dining-hall for the students was established; in 1892 provision was made within the university for the instruction of women; and for the board and residence of women students a permanent building was opened in 1896. To the south of the library medical buildings, erected by the munificence of the 3rd marquess of Bute, were opened in 1899. It was during the principalship of Dr James Donaldson, who succeeded John Tulloch (1823-1886), that most of the modern improvements were introduced.

Madras College, founded and endowed by Dr Andrew Bell (1755-1832), a native of the city, is a famous higher-class school. The town, which is governed by a council, provost and bailies, gives its name to the district group of burghs for returning one member to parliament, the other constituents being the two Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny and Pittenweem.

Four miles N. W. is Leuchars (pop. 711), the church of which, dating from 1100, contains some beautiful Norman work in the chancel and apse, the nave being modern. It was in this church that Alexander Henderson (1583-1646) heard the sermon that led him to give up Episcopacy. At Guard Bridge (pop. 715), so named from the six-arched bridge erected by Bishop Wardlaw at the mouth of the Eden, are a large paper-mill and brickworks. Mt Melville, to the S. W. of the city, was the residence of the novelist G. J. WhyteMelville (1821-1878), and Kinaldie, to the S., was the birthplace of Sir Robert Ayton the poet (1570-1638). On the shore, to the S.E., stands the huge detached rock which, from its shape, bears the name of the Spindle rock.

History. St Andrews was probably the site of a Pictish stronghold, and tradition declares that Kenneth, the patron saint of Kennoway, established a Culdee monastery here in the

6th century. The foundations of the little church dedicated to the Virgin were discovered on the Kirkheugh in 1860. Another Culdee church of St Mary on the Rock is supposed to have stood on the Lady's Craig, now covered by the sea. At that period the name of the place was Kilrymont (Gaelic, “The church of the King's Mount ") or Muckross. Another legend tells how St Regulus or Rule, the bishop of Patras in Achaea, was guided hither bearing the relics of Saint Andrew. The Pictish king Angus gave him a tract of land called the Boar Chase, no doubt the Boar hills of the present day, and the name of the spot was changed to St Andrews, the saint soon afterwards (747) becoming the patron-saint of Scotland (but see ANDREW, ST). St Andrews is said to have been made a bishopric in the 9th century, and when the Pictish and Scottish churches were united in 908, the primacy was transferred to it from Dunkeld, its bishops being thereafter known as bishops of Alban. It became an archbishopric during the primacy of Patrick Graham (1466-1478). The town was created a royal burgh in 1124, In the 16th century St Andrews was one of the most important ports north of the Forth and is said to have numbered 14,000 inhabitants, but it fell into decay after the Civil War. Defoe says that when he saw it one-sixth of its houses were ruinous and the sea had so encroached on the harbour that it was never

likely to be restored; but the slight improvement in trade and public spirit which Bishop Pococke seemed to detect in 1760 continued throughout the 19th century.

AUTHORITIES.-S. W. Martine, History and Antiquities of St Rule's Chapel, St Andrews (1787); Grierson, Delineations of St Andrews (1807; 3rd ed., 1898); Reliquiae Divi Andreae (1797); Liber Cartarum Sancti Andreae (Bannatyne Club, 1841); W. F. Skene, "Ecclesiastical Settlements in Scotland," in Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. (1862-1863); C. J. Lyon, History of St Andrews (1843); A. M'Lachlan, St Andrews: its Historical Associations and Public Buildings (Edinburgh, 1885); D. Hay Fleming, The Martyrs and Confessors of St Andrews (Cupar,

1887); Register of the Christian Congregation of St Andrews, 1559

1600 (Edinburgh, Scottish History Society, 1889-1890); Guide to St Andrews; Andrew Lang, St Andrews (London, 1893); D. R. Kerr, St Andrews in 1645–1646 (London, 1895); James Maitland Anderson,

The University of St Andrews: an Historical Sketch (1878); Annual Register of St Andrews University.

SAINT ARNAUD, JACQUES LEROY DE (1801-1854), marshal of France, was born at Paris on the 20th of August 1801. He entered the army in 1817, and after ten years of garrison service, which he varied by gambling and wild courses, he still held only the lowest commissioned grade. He then resigned, led a life of adventure in several lands and returned to the army at thirty as a sub-lieutenant. He took part in the suppression of the Vendée émeute, and was for a time on General (Marshal) Bugeaud's staff. But his debts and the scandals of his private life compelled him to go to Algeria as a captain in the Foreign Legion. There he distinguished himself on numerous occasions, and after twelve years had risen to the rank of maréchal de camp. In 1848 he was placed at the head of a brigade during the revolution in Paris. On his return to Africa, it is said because Louis Napoleon considered him suitable to be the military head of a coup d'état, an expedition was made into Little Kabylia, in which St Arnaud showed his prowess as a commander-in-chief and provided his superiors with the pretext for bringing him home as a general of division (July 1851). He succeeded Marshal Magnan as minister of war and superintended the military operations of the coup d'état of the 2nd of December (1851) which placed Napoleon III. on the throne. A year later he was made marshal of France and a senator, remaining at the head of the war office till 1854, when he set out to command the French in the Crimea, his British colleague being Lord Raglan. He died on board ship on the 29th of September 1854 shortly after commanding at the battle of the Alma. His body was conveyed to France and buried in the Invalides.

See Lettres du Maréchal de Saint Arnaud (Paris, 1855; 2nd edition with memoir by Sainte-Beuve, 1858).

ST ARNAUD, a town of Kara-Kara county, Victoria, Australia, 158 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3656. It is a flourishing town with a fine town hall, a school of mines and the court house, in which sittings of the supreme court are held. There are tanneries, chaff and wood yards, and flourand bone-mills in the town, which lies in a gold-mining, pastoral and agricultural district, the mining being chiefly quartz. To the N.W. is some of the finest agricultural land in the colony.

ST ASAPH, a cathedral city and a contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, on the Rhyl-Denbigh branch of the London & North-Western railway, about 6 m. from each of these towns. Pop. (1901), 1788. Its Welsh name, Llanelwy, is derived from the Elwy, between which stream and the Clwyd it stands. Asaph, to whom the cathedral (one of the smallest in Great Britain) is dedicated, was bishop here after Kentigern's return hence to Glasgow, and died in 596. The small, irregularly built town has also a parish church (Anglican), remains of a Perpendicular chapel near Ffynnon Fair (St Mary's Well), a bishop's house, a grammar school (1882) and almshouses for eight poor widows, founded in 1678 by Bishop Barrow. The hill on which St Asaph stands is Bryn Paulin, supposed to have been the camping-ground of Suetonius Paulinus, on his way to Anglesey. The early cathedral, of wood, was burned by the English in 1247 and 1282, and that built by Bishop Anian in the 13th century (Decorated) was mostly destroyed during the war of Owen Glendower in 1402; Bishop Redman's building (c. 1480) was completed by the erection of the choir about 1770. During the Civil War the Parliamentarians did not spare the building. The choir and chancel were restored, from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, in 1867-1868, the nave in 1875. The church is plain, cruciform, and in style chiefly Decorated but partly Early English, with a square tower; it has a library of nearly 2000 volumes (some rare); memorials to Bishop Dafydd ab Owain (d. 1502), to Bishop Luxmore (d. 1830), to the poetess Felicia Hemans, a resident near St Asaph (d. 1835); and Perpendicular oak choir stalls. In the neighbourhood is the modern mansion of Bodelwyddan, of which the estate was bought by Sir W. Williams, speaker of the House of Commons in Charles II.'s time.

ST AUGUSTINE, a city and the county-seat of St John's county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 36 m. S.E. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4272, of whom 1735 were negroes; many of the native whites are descendants of those Minorcans who were settled at New Smyrna, Florida, by Andrew Turnbull in 1769, and subsequently removed to St Augustine. St Augustine is served by the Florida East Coast railway and by the Florida East Coast Canal, an inland waterway from the St John's river to the Florida Keys.

The city stands on a narrow, sandy peninsula, about 12 ft. above the sea, formed by the Matanzas and San Sebastian rivers, and is separated from the ocean by the northern end of Anastasia Island. St George, the chief street in St Augustine, is only 17 ft. wide, and Treasury Street is, at its east end, an alley across which two

people may clasp hands. There are many old houses, some of which have balconies projecting above the streets. At its northern end is the old fort of San Marco (now renamed Fort Marion in honour of General Francis Marion), a well-preserved specimen of Spanish military architecture, begun, it is supposed, about 1656 and finished in 1756. The St Francis barracks (now the state arsenal) occupy the site of the old Franciscan convent, whose walls still remain as the first storey. In the military cemetery are buried a number of soldiers who were massacred by the Seminoles near the Great Wahoo Swamp on the 28th of August 1835. At the end of St George Street and near Fort Marion is the City Gate (two pillars, each 20 ft. high); from this gate a line of earthworks formerly stretched across the northern end of the peninsula. In the centre of the city is the Plaza de la Constitucion, in which are an obelisk erected in 1813 to commemorate the Spanish Liberal Constitution of 1812, and a monument (1872) to citizens who died in the Confederate Army. On this square are the market (built in 1840, partially burned in 1887, and afterwards rebuilt), often erroneously spoken of as "the slave market "; a Roman Catholic cathedral (built in 1791, burned in 1887, and rebuilt and enlarged in 1887-1888); Trinity church (Protestant Episcopal); and the post office (once the Spanish government building). In the western part of the city is the beautiful Memorial Presbyterian Church, built in 1889 as a memorial to his daughter, by Henry M. Flagler. Facing King Street (the Alameda) is the magnificent Hotel Ponce de Leon (Spanish Renaissance), of shell-concrete, also by Flagler. The Alcazar (with a large swimming pool fed by a sulphurous artesian well), in the Moorish style, and the Alcazar Annex (with a large sun parlour), formerly the Cordova Hotel, designed and built by Franklin W. Smith, in the Hispano-Moorish style, are also In an old building (restored) is housed the famous hostelries. Wilson Free Public Library. Another old building houses the collections of the St Augustine Institute of Science and Historical Society, organized in 1884. St Augustine is the seat of the state school for the deaf and blind (1885).

Coast railway. Oyster canning and fishing are engaged in to some

At St Augustine are car and machine shops of the Florida East

extent, and cigars are manufactured, but the city is important chiefly as a winter resort, the number of its visitors approximating 25,000 a year. The climate is delightful, the mean temperature for the winter months being about 58° F. and for the entire year about 70° F.

St Augustine is the oldest permanent settlement of Europeans in the United States. It was founded by Spanish colonists under the leadership of Pedro Menendez de Avilés, who sighted land here in 1565, on the 28th of August, St Augustine's day, whence the name. On the 6th of September he landed and began his fortifications. St Augustine's colonial history is almost identical with the history of Florida (q.v.) under Spanish dominion. In 1586 it was burned by Sir Francis Drake, who captured the fort, and in 1665 it was pillaged by Captain John Davis, an English freebooter. There were frequent conflicts with the English settlements in South Carolina and Georgia, beginning in 1681 with an attack by the Spanish on Port Royal, South Carolina. In 1702 Governor James Moore of South Carolina captured St Augustine, but not the fort; and there were subsequent expeditions under General James Edward Oglethorpe (see GEORGIA). When Florida was ceded to England in 1763, nearly all the Spanish inhabitants of St Augustine went to Cuba. Under English control the city prospered, but when in 1783 Florida was re-ceded to Spain, nearly all the English inhabitants left for the Carolinas, Georgia or the West Indies, and it became merely a military post. In 1821 St Augustine, with the rest of Florida, passed under American control. The Spanish inhabitants remained. On the 7th of January 1861, three days before Florida passed her Ordinance of Secession, the small United States garrison was compelled by a state force to evacuate; but on the 11th of March 1862 the fort was

recaptured without bloodshed by a Federal force, and was held by the Federals until the close of the Civil War.

See George R. Fairbanks, The History and Antiquities of the City of St Augustine (New York, 1858); Charles B. Reynolds, Old St Augustine (St Augustine, 1885); and D. Y. Thomas, "Report upon the Historic Buildings, Monuments and Local Archives of St Augustine," in vol. i. pp. 333-352 of the Annual Report (1905) of the American Historical Association.

ST AUSTELL, a market town in the St Austell parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 14 m. N.E. of Truro, on the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3340. It is pleasantly situated on a steep slope 2 m. inland from St Austell bay on the south coast. To the north the high ground culminates at 1034 ft. above the sea in Hensbarrow Downs, so called from a barrow standing at the loftiest point. The church of the Holy Trinity is Perpendicular, with Decorated chancel, richly ornamented in a manner unusual in the county. The town is the centre of a district productive of china clay (kaolin), about 400,000 tons being annually exported by sea to the potteries of Staffordshire and to Lancashire, where it is used in the calicoworks for sizing. The deposits of clay became important about 1763, and Josiah Wedgwood acquired mines in the neighbourhood. Mines were previously worked for tin and copper, and in some cases after being exhausted of ore continued to be worked for clay. The Carclaze mine to the north-east is notably rich; it is a shallow excavation of great superficial extent, which appears to have been worked from very early times. Close to St Austell is a good example of an ancient baptistery, called Menacuddle Well, the little chapel being Early English.

ST BARTHOLOMEW, or ST BARTHÉLEMY, an island in the French West Indies. It lies in 17° 55′ N. and 63° 60′ W., about 130 m. N.W. of Guadeloupe, of which it is a dependency. It is shaped like an irregular crescent, the horns, enclosing the bay of St Jean, pointing to the N.; its surface is hilly, culminating near the centre in a limestone hill 1003 ft. high. It is 8 sq. m. in area, and devoid of forests, and water has often to be imported from the neighbouring island of St Kitts. The surrounding rocks and shallows make the island difficult of access. Despite the lack of water, sugar, cotton, cocoa, manioc and tobacco are grown. The capital, Gustavia, on the S.W. coast, possesses a small but safe harbour. Lorient is the only other town. The inhabitants, mainly of French and negro descent, are Englishspeaking, and number about 3000. St Bartholomew was occupied by France in 1648 and ceded to Sweden in 1784. In 1877 it was again acquired by France at the cost of £11,000.

ST BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF, the name given to the massacre of the Huguenots, which began in Paris on St Bartholomew's day, the 24th of August 1572. The initiative for the crime rests with Catherine de' Medici. Irritated and disquieted by the growing influence of Admiral Coligny, who against her wishes was endeavouring to draw Charles IX. into a war with Spain, she resolved at first to have him assassinated. The blow failed, and the admiral was only wounded. The attempt, however, infuriated the Huguenots, who had flocked to Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre and Marguerite de Valois. Charles IX. declared that the assassin should receive condign punishment. Catherine then conceived the idea of killing at a blow all the Huguenot leaders, and of definitely ruining the Protestant party. After holding a council with the Catholic leaders, including the duke of Anjou, Henry of Guise, the marshal de Tavannes, the duke of Nevers, and René de Birague, the keeper of the seals, she persuaded the king that the massacre was a measure of public safety, and on the evening of the 23rd of August succeeded in wringing his authorization from him. The king himself arranged the manner of its execution, but it is scarcely probable that he fired upon the Huguenots from a window of the Louvre. The massacre began on Sunday at daybreak, and continued in Paris till the 17th of September. Once let loose, it was impossible to restrain the Catholic populace. From Paris the massacre spread to the provinces till the 3rd of October. The duc de Longueville in Picardy, Chabot-Charny (son of Admiral Chabot) at Dijon, the comte de Matignon (1525-1597) in Normandy, and other provincial governors, refused to authorize the massacres.

François Hotman estimates the number killed in the whole of France at 50,000. There were many illustrious victims, among them being Admiral Coligny, his son-in-law Charles de Téligny and the logician Peter Ramus. Catherine de' Medici received the congratulations of all the Catholic powers, and Pope Gregory XIII. commanded bonfires to be lighted and a medal to be struck.

See H. Bordier, La St Barthélemy et la critique moderne (Paris, 1879); H. Baumgarten, Vor der Bartholomäusnacht (Strassburg, 1882); and H. Mariéjol, La Réforme et la Ligue " (Paris, 1904), in vol. vi. of the Histoire de France, by E. Lavisse, which contains a more complete bibliography of the subject.

ST BENOÎT-SUR-LOIRE, a village of north-central France, in the department of Loiret, on the right bank of the Loire, 22 m. E.Š.E. of Orléans by road. St Benoît (Lat. Floriacum) possesses a huge basilica, the only survival of a famous monastery founded in the 7th century to which the relics of St Benedict were brought from Monte Cassino. Of great importance during the middle ages, owing partly to its school, the establishment began to decline in the 16th century. In 1562 it was pillaged by the Protestants and, though the buildings were restored by Richelieu, the abbey did not recover its former position. The basilica was built between c. 1025 and 1218. Its narthex has a second storey supported on columns with remarkable carved capitals; there are two sets of transepts, above which rises a square central tower. In the interior are the tomb of Philip I., stalls of the 15th century, and, in the crypt, a modern shrine containing the remains of St Benedict, which still attract many pilgrims.

ST BERNARD PASSES, two of the best-known passes across the main chain of the Alps, both traversed by carriage roads. The Great St Bernard (8111 ft.) leads (53 m.) from Martigny (anc. Octodurus) in the Rhone valley (Switzerland) to Aosta (anc. Augusta Praetoria) in Italy. It was known in Roman times. The hospice on the pass was founded (or perhaps refounded) by St Bernard of Menthon (d. about 1081), and since the 12th or early 13th century has been in charge of a community of Austin canons, the mother-house being at Martigny. Annually the servants of the canons, and the famous dogs, save many lives, especially of Italian workmen crossing the pass. In May 1800 Napoleon led his army over the pass, which was then traversed by a bridle road only. The Little St Bernard (7179 ft.) also was known in Roman times, and the hospice refounded by St Bernard of Menthon, though it is now in charge of the military and religious order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus. The pass leads (39 m.) from Bourg St Maurice in the Isère valley (French department of Savoie) to Aosta, but is much less frequented by travellers than its neighbour opposite. (W. A. B. C.)

There is no certain mention of the road over the pass of the Great St Bernard (Alpis Poenina, Poeninus Mons) before 57 B.C. when Julius Caesar sent Servius Galba over it," because he wished that the pass, by which traders had been accustomed to go at great risk and with very high transport charges, should be opened." But even in Strabo's time it was impassable for wheeled traffic; and we find that Augusta Praetoria originally had but two gates, one opening on the road towards the Little St Bernard (Alpis Graia), the other towards Eporedia (Ivrea), but none towards the Alpis Poenina. But the military arrangement of the German provinces rendered the construction of the road necessary, and it is mentioned as existing in A.D. 69. Remains of it cut in the rock, some 12 ft. in width, still exist near the lake at the top of the pass. On the plain at the top of the pass is the temple of Jupiter Poeninus (Penninus), remains of which were excavated in 1890-1893, though objects connected with it had long ago been found. The oldest of the votive-tablets which can be dated belongs to the time of Tiberius, and the temple may be attributed to the beginning of the empire; objects, however, of the first Iron age (4th or 5th century B.C.) were also found 1 and many Gaulish coins. Other buildings, probably belonging to the post station at the top of the pass, were also discovered. Many of the objects found then and in previous years, including 1 So Not. degli scavi (1891), 81; but the statement is contradicted, ibid. (1894), 44.