22 REFORMATORY-REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA a sunny open, remote from the unfathomable depths of mystery and clouds of religious emotion which beset the way of the sincere Catholic and Protestant alike. The The effects of the Protestant secession on the doctrines, organization and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are difficult to estimate, still more so to substantiate. It Catholic is clear that the doctrinal conclusions of the council Reforma- of Trent were largely determined by the necessity tion. of condemning Protestant tenets, and that the result of the council was to give the Roman Catholic faith a more precise form than it would otherwise have had. It is much less certain that the disciplinary reforms which the council, following the example of its predecessors, re-enacted, owed. anything to Protestantism, unless indeed the council would have shown itself less intolerant in respect to such innovations as the use of the vernacular in the services had this not smacked of evangelicalism. In the matter of the pope's supremacy, the council followed the canon law and Thomas Aquinas, not the decrees of the council of Constance. It prepared the way for the dogmatic formulation of the plenitude of the papal power three centuries later by the council of the Vatican. The Protestants have sometimes taken credit to themselves for the indubitable reforms in the Roman Catholic Church, which by the end of the 16th century had done away with many of the crying abuses against which councils and diets had so long been protesting. But this conservative reformation had begun before Luther's preaching, and might conceivably have followed much the same course had his doctrine never found popular favour or been ratified by the princes. tion in the In conclusion, a word may be said of the place of the Reformation in the history of progress and enlightenment. A The place "philosopher," as Gibbon long ago pointed out, of the who asks from what articles of faith above and against Reforma- reason the early Reformers enfranchised their followers history of will be surprised at their timidity rather than scandalprogress. ized by their freedom. They remained severely orthodox in the doctrines of the Fathers-the Trinity, the Incarnation, the plenary inspiration of the Bible-and they condemned those who rejected their teachings to a hell whose fires they were not tempted to extenuate. Although they surrendered transubstantiation, the loss of one mystery was amply compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin, redemption, faith, grace and predestination upon which they founded their theory of salvation. They ceased to appeal to the Virgin and saints, and to venerate images and relics, procure indulgences and go on pilgrimages, they deprecated the monastic life, and no longer nourished faith by the daily repetition of miracles, but in the witch persecutions their demonology cost the lives of thousands of innocent women. They broke the chain of authority, without, however, recognizing the propriety of toleration. In any attempt to determine the relative im portance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is naturally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been to forward scientific research or political reform. Luther and his contemporaries had not in any degree the modern idea of progress, which first becomes conspicuous with Bacon and Descartes, but believed, on the contrary, that the strangling of reason was the most precious of offerings to God. "Freeand "rationalist thinker have been terms of opprobrium whether used by Protestants or Catholics. The pursuit of salvation does not dominate by any means the whole life and ambition of even ardent believers; statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, scientific investigators and inventors have commonly gone their way regardless of the particular form of Christianity which prevailed in the land in which they lived. The Reformation was, fundamentally, then, but one phase, if the most conspicuous, in the gradual decline of the majestic medieval ecclesiastical State, for this decline has gone on in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, countries in which the Protestant revolt against the ancient Church ended in failure. " BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Reference is made here mainly to works dealing Only recent books are menwith the Reformation as a whole. tioned, since the older works have been largely superseded owing to modern critical investigations: Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation, 2 vols. (1906-7), the best general treatment; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (1902), chaps. xviii. and xix., The Wars vol. ii. (1904), " The Reformation," and vol. iii. (1905), of Religion," with very full bibliographies; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, 6 vols. (new ed. 1899–1901). From a Catholic standpoint: L. Pastor, Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (1891 sqq., especially vol. iv. in two parts, 1906–7, and vol. v., 1909). This is in course of publication and is being translated into English (8 vols. have appeared, 1891-1908, covering the period 1305-1521); J. Janssen, History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols., 18961907, corresponding to vols. i.-vi. of the German original, in 8 vols., This is the standard Catholic treatedited by Pastor, 1897-1904. ment of the Reformation, and is being supplemented by a series of monographs, Ergänzungen zu Janssens Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, which have been appearing since 1898 and correspond with the Protestant Schriften des Vereins für Reformationsgeschichte (1883 sqq.). F. von Bezold, Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1890), an excellent illustrated account; E. Troeltsch, Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche der Neuzeit, in the series Kultur der Gegenwart," Teil i. Abt. 4, i. Hälfte, 1905; Charles Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (The Hibbert Lectures for 1883), and by the same, Martin Luther, vol. i. (no more published; 1889); A. Harnack, History of Dogma (trans. from the 3rd German edition, vol. vii., 1900); A. E. Berger, Die Kulturaufgaben der Reformation (2nd ed., 1908); Thudichum, Papstum und Reformation (1903); Janus," The Pope and the Council (1869), by Döllinger and others, a suggestive if not wholly accurate sketch of the papal claims; W. Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation, vol. i. (no more published) (1880); J. Haller, Papstum und Kirchenreform, vol. i. (1903) relates to the 14th century; J. Köstlin, Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften, new edition by Kawerau, 2 vols., 1903, the most useful life of Luther; H. Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, 2 vols. (1904-6), a bitter but learned arraignment of Luther by a distinguished Dominican scholar. H. Boehmer, Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (1906), brief and suggestive. First Principles of the Reformation, the Three Primary Works of Dr Martin Luther, edited by Wace and Buchheim,—an English translation of the famous pamphlets of 1520. (J. H. R.*) training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from "industrial schools," which are institutions for potential and not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England victed of an offence punishable with penal servitude or imare sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been conprisonment. The order is made by the court before which Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908, they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen. by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended JUVENILE OFFENDERS. REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial testant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Procal divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the CalvinCalvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangeliistic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches repudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Full details of these divergences are given in M. Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbegriffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung (Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also REFORMATION; PRESBYTERIANISM; CAMERONIANS. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA, until 1867 called officially "The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America," and still popularly called the Dutch Reformed Church, an American Calvinist church, originating with the settlers from Holland in New York, New Jersey and Delaware. the first permanent settlers of the Reformed faith in the New World. Their earliest settlements were at Manhattan, Wallabout and Fort Orange (now Albany), where the West India Company formally established the Reformed Church of Holland. A conservative secession "on account of Hopkinsian errors in 1822 of six ministers (five then under suspension) organized a General Synod and the classes of Hackensack and Union (central New York) in 1824; it united with the Christian Reformed Church, established by immigrants from Holland after 1835, to which there was added a fresh American secession in 1882 due to opposition (on the part of the seceders) to secret societies. Their first minister was Jonas Michaelius, pastor in New | the American Classis), which in 1766 (and again in 1770) obtained Amsterdam of the "church in the fort" (now the Collegiate a charter for Queen's (now Rutgers) College at New Brunswick. Church of New York City). The second domine, Everardus But in 1771-72 through the efforts of John H. Livingston Bogardus (d. 1647), migrated to New York in 1633 with Gover- (1746-1825), who had become pastor of the New York City church nor Wouter van Twiller, with whom he quarrelled continually; in 1770, on the basis of a plan drafted by the Classis of Amsterin the same year a wooden church" in the fort was built; and dam Coetus and Conferentie were reunited with a substantial in 1642 it was succeeded by a stone building. A minister, independence of Amsterdam, which was made complete in John van Mekelenburg (Johannes Megapolensis) migrated to 1792 when the Synod (the nomenclature of synod and classis Rensselaerwyck manor in 1642, preached to the Indians had been adopted upon the declaration of American Independprobably before any other Protestant minister-and after 1649 ence) adopted a translation of the eighty-four Articles of Dort was settled in New Amsterdam. With the access of English on Church Order with seventy-three" explanatory articles.” 1 and French settlers, Samuel Drisius, who preached in Dutch, In 1800 there were about forty ministers and one hundred German, English and French, was summoned, and he laboured churches. In 1819 the Church was incorporated as the Rein New Amsterdam and New York from 1652 to 1673. On Long formed Protestant Dutch Church; and in 1867 the name was Island John T. Polhemus preached at Flatbush in 1654-76. changed to the Reformed Church in America. Preaching in During Peter Stuyvesant's governorship there was little toleration Dutch had nearly ceased in 1820, but about 1846 a new Dutch of other denominations, but the West India Company reversed immigration began, especially in Michigan, and fifty years later his intolerant proclamations against Lutherans and Quakers. Dutch preaching was common in nearly one-third of the churches About 1659 a French and Dutch church was organized in of the country, only to disappear almost entirely in the next Harlem. The first church in New Jersey, at Bergen, in 1661, decade. Union with other Reformed churches was planned was quickly followed by others at Hackensack and Passaic. in 1743, in 1784, in 1816-20, 1873-78 and 1886, but unsucAfter English rule in 1664 displaced Dutch in New York, the cessfully; however, ministers go from one to another charge relations of the Dutch churches there were much less close with in the Dutch and German Reformed, Presbyterian, and to a less the state Church of Holland; and in 1679 (on the request of degree Congregational churches. the English governor of New York, to whom the people of New Castle appealed) a classis was constituted for the ordination of a pastor for the church in New Castle, Delaware. The Dutch strongly opposed the establishment of the Church of England, and contributed largely toward the adoption (in October 1683) of the Charter of Liberties which confirmed in their privileges all churches then "in practice" in the city of New York and elsewhere in the province, but which was repealed by James II. in 1686, when he established the Church of England in New York but allowed religious liberty to the Dutch and others. The Dutch ministers stood by James's government during Leisler's rebellion. Under William III., Governors Sloughter and Fletcher worked for a law (passed in 1693 and approved in 1697) for the settling of a ministry in New York, Richmond, Westchester and Queen's counties; but the Assembly foiled Fletcher's purpose of establishing a Church of England clergy, although he attempted to construe the act as applying only to the English Church. In 1696 the first church charter in New York was granted to the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church (now the Collegiate Church) of New York City; at this time there were Dutch ministers at Albany and Kingston, on Long Island and in New Jersey; and for years the Dutch and English (Episcopalian) churches alone received charters in New York and New Jersey-the Dutch church being treated practically as an establishment-and the church of the fort and Trinity (Episcopalian; chartered 1697) were fraternally harmonious. In 1700 there were twenty-nine Reformed Dutch churches out of a total of fifty in New York. During the administration of Governor Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, many members joined the Episcopal Church and others removed to New Jersey. The Great Awakening crowned the efforts of Theodore J. Frelinghuysen, who had come over as a Dutch pastor in 1720 and had opposed formalism and preached a revival. The Church in America in 1738 asked the Classis of Amsterdam (to whose care it had been transferred from the West India Company) for the privilege of forming a Coetus or Association with power to ordain in America; the Classis, after trying to join the Dutch with the English Presbyterian churches, granted (1747) a Coetus first to the German and then to the Dutch churches, which therefore in September 1754 organized themseves into a classis. This action was opposed by the church of New York City, and partly through this difference and partly because of quarrels over the denominational control of King's College (now Columbia), five members of the Coetus seceded, and as the president of the Coetus was one of them they took the records with them; they were called the Conferentie; they organized independently in 1764 and carried on a bitter warfare with the Coetus (now more properly called The organization of the Church is: a General Synod (1794); the (particular) synods of New York (1800), Albany (1800), Chicago (1856) and New Brunswick (1869); classes, corresponding to the presbyteries of other Calvinistic bodies; and the churches, numbering, in 1906, 659. The agencies of the Church are: the Board of Education, privately organized in 1828 and adopted by the General Synod in 1831; a Widows' Fund (1837) and a Disabled Ministers' Fund; a Board of Publication (1855); a Board of Domestic Missions (1831; reorganized 1849) with a Church Building Fund and a Woman's Executive Committee; a Board of Foreign Missions (1832) succeeding the United Missionary Society (1816), which included Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed and Associate Reformed Churches, and which was merged (1826) in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, from which the Dutch Church did not entirely separate itself until 1857; and a Woman's Board of Foreign Missions (1875). The principal missions are in India at Arcot (1854; transferred in 1902 to the Synod of S. India) and at Amoy in China (1842); and the work of the Church in Japan was very successful, especially under Guido Fridolin Verbeck (1830-1898), and 1877 native churches built up by Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed missionaries were organized as the United Church of our Lord Jesus Christ in Japan. There is also an Arabian mission, begun privately in 1888 and transferred to the Board in 1894. 2 The colleges and institutions of learning connected with the Church are Rutgers, already mentioned; Union College (1795), the out growth of Schenectady Academy, founded in 1785 by Dirck Romeyn, a Dutch minister; Hope College (1866; coeducational) at Holland, Michigan, originally a parochial school (1850) and then (1855) Holland Academy; the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick (..); and the Western Theological Seminary (1869) at Holland, Michigan. In 1906 (according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the U.S. Census) there were 659 organizations with 773 church edifices reported and the total membership was 124,938. More than onehalf of this total membership (63,350) was in New York state, the principal home of the first great Dutch immigration; more than one-quarter (32,290) was in New Jersey; and the other states were: Michigan (11,260), Illinois (4962), Iowa (4835), Wisconsin (2312), and Pennsylvania (1979). The Church was also represented in Minnesota, S. Dakota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, N. Dakota, S. Carolina, Washington and Maryland-the order being that of rank in number of communicants. The Christian Reformed Church, an "old school" secession, had in 1906, 174 organizations, 181 churches and a membership of 26,669, 1 In 1832 the articles of Church government were rearranged and in 1872-74 they were amended. See W. E. Griffis, Verbeck of Japan (New York, 1900). of which more than one-half (14,779) was in Michigan, where many of the immigrants who came after 1835 belonged to the secession church in Holland. There were 2990 in lowa, 2392 in New Jersey, 2332 in Illinois, and smaller numbers in Wisconsin, Indiana, Minnesota, S. Dakota, Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Massachusetts, Montana, N. Dakota, New Mexico, Nebraska and Colorado. See D. D. Demarest, The Reformed Church in America (New York, 1889); E. T. Corwin, The Manual of the Reformed Church in America (ibid., 4th ed., 1902), his sketch of the history of the Church in vol. viii. (ibid., 1895) of the American Church History Series, and his Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York (Albany, 1901 sqq.), published by the State of New York. REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, a German Calvinistic church in America, commonly called the German Reformed Church. It traces its origin to the great German immigration of the 17th century, especially to Pennsylvania, where, although the German Lutherans afterwards outnumbered them, the Reformed element was estimated in 1730 to be more than half the whole number of Germans in the colony. In 1709 more than 2000 Palatines emigrated to New York with their pastor, Johann Friedrich Hager (d. c. 1723), who laboured in the Mohawk valley. A church in Germantown, Virginia, was founded about 1714. Johann Philip Boehm (d. 1749), a school teacher from Worms, although not ordained, preached after 1725 to congregations at Falckner's Swamp, Skippack, and White Marsh, Pennsylvania, and in 1729 he was ordained by Dutch Reformed ministers in New York. Georg Michael Weiss (c. 1700-c. 1762), a graduate of Heidelberg, ordained and sent to America by the Upper Consistory of the Palatinate in1727, organized a church in Philadelphia; preached at Skippack; worked in Dutchess and Schoharie counties, New York, in 1731-1746; and then returned to his old field in Pennsylvania. Johann Heinrich Goetschius was pastor (c. 1731-1738) of ten churches in Pennsylvania, and was ordained by the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia in 1737. A part of his work was undertaken by Johann Conrad Wirtz, who was ordained by the New Brunswick (New Jersey) Presbytery in 1750, and in 1761-1763 was pastor at York, Pennsylvania. A church was built in 1736 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where Johann Bartholomaeus Rieger (1707-1769), who came from Germany with Weiss on his return in 1731, had preached for several years. Michael Schlatter (1716-1790), a Swiss of St Gall, sent to America in 1746 by the Synods (Dutch Reformed) of Holland, immediately convened Boehm, Weiss and Rieger in Philadelphia, and with them planned a Coetus, which first met in September 1747; in 1751 he presented the cause of the Coetus in Germany and Holland, where he gathered funds; in 1752 came back to America with six ministers, one of whom, William Stoy (1726-1801), was an active opponent of the Coetus and of clericalism after 1772. Thereafter Schlatter's work was in the charity schools of Pennsylvania, which the people thought were tinged with Episcopalianism. Many churches and pastors were independent of the Coetus, notably John Joachim Zubly (1724-1781), of St Gall, who migrated to Š. Carolina in 1726, and was a delegate to the Continental Congress from Georgia, but opposed independence and was banished from Savannah in 1777. Within the Coetus there were two parties. Of the Pietists of the second class one of the leaders was Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), born in Dellenburg, Nassau, whose system of class-meetings was the basis of a secession from which grew the United Brethren in Christ, commonly called the "New Reformed Church," organized in 1800. During the War of Independence the Pennsylvania members of the Church were mostly attached to the American cause, and Nicholas Herkimer and Baron von Steuben were both Reformed; but in New York and in the South there were many German Loyalists. Franklin College was founded by Lutherans and Reformed, with much outside help, notably that of Benjamin Franklin, at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787. The Coetus had actually assumed the power of ordination in 1772 and formally assumed it in 1791; in 1792 a synodical constitution was prepared; and in 1793 the first independent synod met in Lancaster and adopted the constitution, thus becoming independent of Holland. Its churches numbered 178, and there were about 15,000 communicants. The strongest churches were those of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Germantown in Pennsylvania, and Frederick in Maryland. The German Reformed churches in Lunenburg county, Nova Scotia, became Presbyterian in 1837; a German church in Waldoboro, Maine, after a century, became Congregational in 1850. The New York churches became Dutch Reformed. The New Jersey churches rapidly fell away, becoming Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, or Lutheran. In Virginia many churches became Episcopalian and others United Brethren. By 1825, 13 Reformed ministers were settled W. of the Alleghanies. The Synod in 1819 divided itself into eight Classes. In 1824 the Classis of Northampton, Pennsylvania (13 ministers and 80 congregations), became the Synod of Ohio, the parent Synod having refused to allow the Classis to ordain. În 1825 there were 87 ministers, and in the old Synod about 23,300 communicants. A schism over the establishment of a theological seminary resulted in the organization of a new synod of the "Free German Reformed Congregations of Pennsylvania," which returned to the parent synod in 1837. John Winebrenner (q.v.), pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, left the Church in 1828, and in 1830 organized the "Church of God"; his main doctrinal difference with the Reformed Church was on infant baptism. In 1825 the Church opened a theological seminary at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, affiliated with Dickinson College. James Ross Reily (1788-1844) travelled in Holland and Germany, collecting money and books for the seminary. It was removed in 1829 to York, where an academy was connected with it; in 1835 the academy (which in 1836 became Marshall College) and in 1837 the seminary removed to Mercersburg, where, in 1840, John W. Nevin (q.v.) became its president, and with Philip Schaff (q.v.) founded the Mercersburg theology, which lost to the Church many who objected to Nevin's (and Schaff's) Romanizing tendencies. The seminary was removed in 1871 from Mercersburg to Lancaster, whither the college had gone in 1853 to form, with Franklin College, Franklin and Marshall College. In 1842 the Western Synod (i.e. the Synod of Ohio) adopted the constitution of the Eastern, and divided into classes. It founded in 1850 a theological school and Heidelberg University at Tiffin, Ohio. The Synods organized a General Synod in 1863. New German Synods were: that of the North-West (1867), organized at Fort Wayne, Ind.; that of the East (1875), organized at Philadelphia; and the Central Synod (1881), organized at Galion, Ohio. New English Synods were: that of Pittsburg (1870); that of the Potomac (1873); and that of the Interior (1887), organized at Kansas City, Missouri. In 1894 there were eight district synods. After a long controversy over a liturgy (connected in part with the Mercersburg controversy) a Directory of Worship was adopted in 1887. The principal organizations of the Church are: the Board of Publication (1844); the Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows (founded in 1755 by the Pennsylvania Coetus; incorporated in 1810; transferred to the Synod in 1833); a Board of Domestic Missions (1826); a Board of Foreign Missions (1838; reorganized in 1873), which planted a mission in Japan (1879), now a part of has publishing houses in Philadelphia (replacing that of Chambersthe Union Church of Japan, and one in China (1900). The Church burg, Pa., founded in 1840 and destroyed in July 1864 by the Confederate army) and in Cleveland, Ohio. Colleges connected with the Church, besides the seminary at Lancaster, Franklin and Marshall College and Heidelberg University, are: Catawba College (1851) at Newton, North Carolina; and Ursinus College (1869), founded by the Low Church wing, at Collegeville, Pennsylvania, which had, until 1908, a theological seminary, then removed to Dayton, Ohio, where it united with Heidelberg Theological Seminary (until 1908 at Tiffin) to form the Central Theological Seminary. In 1906, according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the United States Census, the Church had 1736 organizations in the United States, 1740 churches and 292,654 communicants, of whom 177,270 were in Pennsylvania, and about one-sixth (50,732) were in Ohio. Other states in which the Church had communicants were: Maryland (13.442), Wisconsin (8386), Indiana (8289), New York (5700), North Carolina (4718), lowa (3692), Illinois (2652), Virginia (2288), Kentucky (2101), Michigan (1666), Nebraska (1616), and (less than 1500 in each of the following, arranged in rank) S. Dakota, Missouri, New Jersey, Connecticut, Kansas, W. Virginia, N. Dakota, Minnesota, District of Columbia, Oregon, Massachusetts, Tennessee, California, Colorado, Arkansas and Oklahoma. See James I. Good, History of the Reformed Church in the United States, 1725-1792 (Reading, Pa., 1899), and Historical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1902); and the sketch by Joseph Henry Dubbs in vol. viii. (New York, 1895) of the American Church History Series. REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH, a Protestant community in the United States of America, dating from December 1873. The influence of the Tractarian movement began to be felt at an early date in the Episcopal Church of the United States, and the ordination of Arthur Carey in New York, July 1843, a clergyman who denied that there was any difference in points of faith between the Anglican and the Roman Churches and considered the Reformation an unjustifiable act, brought into relief the antagonism between Low Church and High Church, a struggle which went on for a generation with increasing bitterness. The High Church party lost no opportunity of arraigning any Low Churchman who conducted services in non-episcopal churches, and as the Triennial Conference gave no heed to remonstrances on the part of these ecclesiastical offenders they came to the conclusion that they must either crush their consciences or seek relief in separation. The climax was reached when George D. Cummins (1822-1876), assistant bishop of Kentucky, was angrily attacked for officiating at the united communion service held at the meeting of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, October 1873. This prelate resigned his charge in the Episcopal Church on November 11th, and a month later, with seven other clergymen and a score of laymen, constituted the Reformed Episcopal Church. Cummins was chosen as presiding officer of the new body, and consecrated Charles E. Cheney (b. 1836), rector of Christ Church, Chicago, to be bishop. The following Declaration of Principles (here abridged) was promulgated :— I. An expression of belief in the Bible as the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith and practice, in the Apostles' Creed, in the divine institution of the two sacraments and in the doctrines of grace substantially as set out in the 39 Articles. II. The recognition of Episcopacy not as of divine right but as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity. III. An acceptance of the Prayer Book as revised by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1785, with liberty to revise it as may seem most conducive to the edification of the people. IV. A condemnation of certain positions, viz. :— (a) That the Church of God exists only in one form of ecclesiastical polity. (b) That Christian ministers as distinct from all believers (c) That the Lord's Table is an altar on which the body and The Church recognizes no orders of ministry, presbyters and deacons; the Episcopate is an office, not an order, the bishop being the chief presbyter, primus inter pares. There are some 7 bishops, 85 clergy and about 9500 communicants. £1600 annually is raised for foreign missionary work in India. The Church was introduced into England in 1877, and has in that country a presiding bishop and about 20 organized congregations. REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart), in physics, the change in the direction of a wave of light, heat or sound which occurs when such a wave passes from one medium into another of different density. I. REFRACTION of Light When a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium falls on the bounding surface of another transparent homogeneous medium, it is found that the direction of the transmitted ray in the second medium is different from that of the incident ray; in other words, the ray is refracted or bent at the point of incidence. The laws governing refraction are: (1) the refracted and incident rays are coplanar with the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, and (2) the ratio of the sines of the angles between the normal and the incident and refracted rays is constant for the two media, but depends on the nature of the light employed, i.e. on its wave length. This constant is called the relative refractive index of the second medium, and may be denoted by Mab, the suffix ab signifying that the light passes from refractive index of a with regard to b. The absolute refractive medium a to medium b; similarly a denotes the relative index is the index when the first medium is a vacuum. Elementary phenomena in refraction, such as the apparent bending of a stick when partially immersed in water, were observed in very remote times, but the laws, as stated above, were first grasped in the 17th century by W. Snell and published by Descartes, the full importance of the dependence of the refractive index on the nature of the light employed being first thoroughly realized by Newton in his famous prismatic decomposition of etical interpretation of these laws on the basis of his corpuscular white light into a coloured spectrum. Newton gave a theortheory, as did also Huygens on the wave theory (see LIGHT, II. Theory of). In this article we only consider refractions at plane surfaces, refraction at spherical surfaces being treated under LENS. The geometrical theory will be followed, the wave theory being treated in LIGHT, DIFFRACTION and DIS dividing two homogeneous media A and B; let IO be a ray in the first medium incident on LM at O, and let OR be the refracted ray. Draw the normal POQ. Then by Snell's law we have invariably sin IOP/sin QOR=μab. Hence if two of these quantities be given the third can be calculated. The commonest question is: Given the incident ray and the refractive index to construct the refracted ray. A simple construction is to take along the incident ray OI, unit distance OC, and a distance OD equal to the refractive index in the same units. Draw CE perpendicular to LM, and draw an arc with centre O and radius OD, cutting CE in E. Then EO produced downwards is the refracted ray. The proof is left to the reader. In the figure the given incident ray is assumed to be passing from a less dense to a denser medium, and it is seen by the construction or by examining the formula sin ẞ=sin a/u that for all Consider the values of a there is a corresponding value of p. case when the light passes from a denser to a less dense medium. In the equation sin ẞ=sin a/μ we have in this case u<I. Now if sin a<u, we have sin a/u<1, and hence ẞ is real. If sin aμ, then sin ẞ=1, i.e. B=90°; in other words, the refracted ray in the second medium passes parallel to and grazes the bounding surface. The angle of incidence, which is given by sin 8-1/u, is termed the critical angle. For greater values it is obvious that sin a/u>I and there is no refraction into the second medium, the rays being totally reflected back into the first medium; this is called total internal reflection. Images produced by Refraction at Plane Surfaces. If a luminous point be situated in a medium separated from one of less density by a plane surface, the ray normal to this surface will be unrefracted, whilst the others will undergo refraction according to their angles of emergence. If the rays in the less dense medium be produced into the denser medium, they envelop a caustic, but by restricting ourselves to a small area about the normal ray it is seen that they intersect this ray in a point which is the geometrical by a lens L. image of the luminous source. The position of this point can be | graduated directly in refractive indices. The reading is effected easily determined. If be the distance of the source below the Beneath the prisms is a mirror for reflecting light surface, l' the distance of the image, and μ the refractive index, then l'=1/μ. This theory provides a convenient method for determining the refractive index of a plate. A micrometer microscope, with vertical motion, is focused on a scratch on the surface of its stage; the plate, which has a fine scratch on its upper surface, is now introduced, and the microscope is successively focused on the scratch on the stage as viewed through the plate, and on the scratch on the plate. The difference between the first and third readings gives the thickness of the plate, corresponding to / above, and between the second and third readings the depth of the image, corresponding to l'. Refraction by a Prism.-In optics a prism is a piece of transparent material bounded by two plane faces which meet at a definite angle, called the refracting angle of the prism, in a straight line called the edge of the prism; a section perpendicular to the edge is called a principal section. Parallel rays, refracted successively at the two faces, emerge from the prism as a system of parallel rays, but the direction is altered by an amount called the deviation. The deviation depends on the angles of incidence and emergence; but, since the course of a ray may always be reversed, there must be a stationary value, either a maximum or minimum, when the ray traverses the prism symmetrically, i.e. when the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. As a matter of fact, it is a minimum, and the position is called the angle of minimum deviation. The relation between the minimum deviation D, the angle of the prism i, and the refractive index μ is found as follows. Let in fig. 2, PQRS be the course of the Ꭱ P ray through the prism; the internal angles ',' each equal i, and the angles of incidence and emergence o, y are each equal and connected with p' by Snell's law, i.e. sin pu sin p'. Also the deviation D is 2(p-p'). Hence usin p/ sin p′ = sin 1⁄2 (D+i)/ sin ți. Refractometers.-Instruments for determining the refractive indices of media are termed refractometers. The simplest are really spectrometers, consisting of a glass prism, usually hollow and fitted with accurately parallel glass sides, mounted on a table which carries a fixed collimation tube and a movable observing tube, the motion of the latter being recorded on a graduated circle. The collimation tube has a narrow adjustable slit at its outer end and a lens at the nearer end, so that the light leaves the tube as a parallel beam. The refracting angle of the prism, i in our previous notation, is determined by placing the prism with its refracting edge towards the collimator, and observing when the reflections of the slit in the two prism faces coincide with the cross-wires in the observing telescope; half the angle between these two positions gives i. To determine the position of minimum deviation, or D, the prism is removed, and the observing telescope is brought into line with the slit; in this position the graduation is read. The prism is replaced, and the telescope moved until it catches the refracted rays. The prism is now turned about a vertical axis until a position is found when the telescope has to be moved towards the collimator in order to catch the rays; this operation sets the prism at the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index u is calculated from the formula given above. More readily manipulated and of superior accuracy are refractometers depending on total reflection. The Abbe refractometer (fig. 3) essentially consists of a double Abbe prism AB to contain the substance to be experimented with; and a telescope F to observe the border line of the total reflection. The prisms, which are right-angled and made of the same flint glass, are mounted in a hinged frame such that the lower prism, which is used for purp-ses of illumination, can be locked so that the hypothenuse faces are distant by about o'15 mm., or rotated away from the upper prism. The double prism is used in examining liquids, a few drops being placed between the prisms; the single prism is used when solids or plastic bodies are employed. The mount is capable of rotation about a horizontal axis by an alidade J. The telescope is provided with a reticule, which can be brought into exact coincidence with the observed border line, and is rigidly fastened to a sector S FIG. 3. into the apparatus. To use the apparatus, the liquid having been inserted between the prisms, or the solid attached by its own adhesiveness or by a drop of monobromnaphthalene to the upper prism, the prism case is rotated until the field of view consists of a light and dark portion, and the border line is now brought into coincidence with the reticule of the telescope. In using a lamp or daylight this border is coloured, and hence a compensator, consisting of two equal Amici prisms, is placed between the objective and the prisms. These Amici prisms can be rotated, in opposite directions, until they produce a dispersion opposite in sign to that originally seen, and hence the border line now appears perfectly sharp and colourless. When at zero the alidade corresponds to a refractive index of 1.3, and any other reading gives the corresponding index correct to about 2 units in the 4th decimal place. Since temperature markedly affects the refractive index, this apparatus is provided with a device for heating the prisms. Figs. 4 and 5 show the course of the rays when a solid and liquid |