the fresh-water discharge, generally forms the navigable channel, which is scoured out during floods. Narrowing the river between the bends to bring the two channels together would unduly restrict the tidal flow; and in a river like the Hugli dependent on the tidal influx for the maintenance of its depth for two-thirds of the year, and with channels changing with the wet and dry seasons, so that deepening by dredging in the turbid river could not be permanent, training works below low water to bring the ebb-tide current into the flood-tide channel, which latter must not be obstructed at all, offer, aided by dredging, the best prospects of improve

Works at the Outlet of Tidal Rivers.-Tidal rivers flowing straight into the sea, without expanding into an estuary, are subject to the obstruction of a bar formed by the heaping-up action of the waves and drift along the coast, especially when the fresh-water discharge is small; and the scour of the currents is generally concentrated and extended across the beach by parallel jetties for lowering the bar, as at the outlets of the Maas (figs. 11 and 12) and of the Nervion (figs. 19 and 20). In the latter case, however, the trained outlet was still liable to be obstructed by drift during north-westerly storms in the Bay of Biscay; and, except in the case of large rivers, the jetties have to be placed too close together, if the scour is to be adequate, to form an easily accessible entrance on an exposed coast. Accordingly, a harbour has been formed in the small bay into which the Nervion flows by two converging breakwaters, which provides a sheltered approach to the river and protects the outlet from drift (fig. 19), and a similar provision has been made at Sunderland for the mouth of the Wear; whilst the Tynemouth piers formed part of the original design for the improvement of the Tyne, under shelter of which the bar has been removed by dredging (fig. 17).

Training Works through Sandy Estuaries.-Many tidal rivers flow through bays, estuaries or arms of the sea before reaching the open sea, as, for instance, the Mersey through Liverpool Bay, the Tees through its enclosed bay, the Liffey through Dublin Bay, the Thames, the Ribble, the Dee, the Shannon, the Seine, the Scheldt, the Weser and the Elbe through their respective estuaries, the Yorkshire Ouse and Trent through the Humber estuary, the Garonne and Dordogne through the Gironde estuary, and the Clyde, the Tay, the Severn and the St Lawrence through friths or arms of the sea. These estuaries vary greatly in their tidal range, the distance inland of the ports to which they give access, and the facilities they offer for navigation. Some possess a very ample depth in their outer portion, though they generally become shallow towards their upper end; but dredging often suffices to remedy their deficiencies and to extend their deep-water channel. Thus the St Lawrence, which possesses an ample depth from the Atlantic up to Quebec, has been rendered accessible for seagoing vessels up to Montreal by a moderate amount of dredging; whilst dredging has been resorted to in parts of the Thames and Humber estuaries, and on the Elbe a little below Hamburg, to provide for the increasing draught of vessels; and the Mersey bar in Liverpool Bay, about 11 m. seawards of the actual mouth of the river, has been lowered by suction dredging from a depth of about 9 ft. down to about 27 ft. below low water of equinoctial spring tides, to admit Atlantic liners at any state of the tide.

FIG. 23.-Moyapur Reach, River Hugli, Jan. 1896. FIG. 24.-James and Mary Reach, River Hugli, April 1890. The average rate of enlargement adopted for the trained channel of the Nervion, in proportion to its length, is I in 75 between Bilbao and its mouth; and 1 in 71 for the Weser from Bremen to Bremerhaven; and these ratios correspond very nearly to the enlargement of the regulated channel of the Clyde from Glasgow to Dumbarton of 1 in 83, and of the Tyne from Newcastle to its mouth of 1 in 75. Accordingly, a rate of enlargement comprised between I in 70 and I in 80 for the regulated or trained channel of the lower portion of a tidal river with a fairly level bed may be expected to give satisfactory results.

I

Some estuaries, however, are so encumbered by sand banks that their rivers can only form shallow, shifting channels through them to the sea; and these channels require to be guided or fixed by longitudinal training walls, consisting of mounds of rubble stone, chalk, slag or fascines, in order to form sufficiently deep stable channels to be available for navigation. The difficulty in such works is to fix the wandering channel adequately, and to deepen it

sufficiently by the scour produced between the training walls, without placing these walls so close together and raising them so high as to check the tidal influx and produce accretion behind them, thereby materially reducing the volume of tidal water entering and flowing out of the estuary at each tide. The high training works in the Dee estuary, carried out in the 18th century with the object of land reclamation, unduly narrowed the channel, and led it towards one side of the estuary; and though they effectually fixed the navigation channel, they produced very little increase in its depth, but caused a very large amount of sand to accumulate in the estuary beyond, owing to the great reduction in tidal volume by the reclamations, and diminished considerably the channel through the lower estuary in width and depth without checking its wanderings. The training of the channel of the Ribble through its estuary below Preston, for improving its depth and rendering it stable, was begun in 1839, and has been gradually extended at intervals; but the works have not yet been carried out to deep water, and a shifting, shallow channel still exists through the sand banks, between the end of the training walls and the open sea. The high training walls adopted along the upper part of the channel enabled the upper end of the estuary on both sides to be

tide (figs. 25 and 26). The channel, however, was made too narrow between Aizier and Berville and was subsequently enlarged, and large tracts of land were reclaimed in the upper estuary. The reduction in tidal capacity by the reclamations, together with the fixing and undue restriction in width of the channel, occasioned very large accretions at the back of the lower portions of the training walls and at the sides of the estuary beyond them, and an extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, the channel has always remained shallow and unstable beyond the ends of the training walls down to deep water near the mouth of the estuary.2

Conclusions about Training Works in Estuaries.-Experience has proved that training works through sandy estuaries, by stopping the wanderings of the navigable channel, produce an increase in its depth, and, consequently, in the tidal scour for maintaining it. This scour, however, being concentrated in the trained channel, is withdrawn from the sides of the estuary, which in its natural condition is stirred up periodically by the wandering channel; and, therefore, accretion takes place in the parts of the estuary from which the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge have been permanently diverted, especially where an abundance of sand from outside, put in suspension by the action of the prevalent

reclaimed for a length of 4 m.; whilst the half-tide training | walls below, placed unduly close together, have led to considerable accretion at the sides of the estuary and some extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, by fixing the channel near the northern shore they have enabled the landowners to carry out large reclamations on the southern foreshore. These works, however, besides fixing the navigable channel, have increased its depth, especially in the upper part, and augmented the tidal scour along it by lowering the low-water line; and the trained channel is further deepened by dredging. The training works in the Weser estuary have been confined to constructing a single low training wall at the upper end, which forms a trumpet-shaped outlet for the river below Bremerhaven, and to guiding the navigable channel by occasional low dikes at the side and closing minor channels, so as to concentrate the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge in it, whilst additional depth is obtained by dredging (fig. 21). A remarkable improvement has been effected in the navigable condition of the upper portion of the Seine estuary by training works, begun in 1848; for in place of a shallow, intricate channel through shifting sand banks, whose dangers were at times intensified by a bore, a stable deep channel has been provided down to about half-way between Berville and St Sauveur, rendering access easy to the river above at high

1L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 289293, and plate 9, figs. 13 and 14.

winds blowing into the estuary, is brought in by the flood-tide, as in the cases of the estuaries of the Dee, the Ribble and the Seine. This accretion reduces the tidal capacity of the estuary, and, producing a diminution in the tidal volume passing through the outlet, promotes the extension of the sand banks seawards, as indicated by the difference in the outer portions of the longitudinal sections of different dates of the Weser and Seine estuaries (figs. 22 and 26). To prevent as far as possible the reduction in tidal capacity, the training walls should not be raised more above low-water level than absolutely necessary to fix the channel; and the rate of enlargement of their width apart should not be less than 1 in 80 at the upper end, and should increase considerably towards the mouth of the estuary so as to form a trumpet-shaped outlet. The loss of scour in the channel resulting from this enlargement must be compensated for by dredging to attain the requisite depth. Training works partially carried out through an estuary have the advantage of reducing the length of shallow channel to be traversed between deep water and the entrance to the deepened river; but as these works produce no influence on the channel for any distance beyond their termination, a shallow, shifting channel is always found be tween the end of the trained channel and deep water. Accordingly, when training works are started at the head of a sandy estuary, provision should always be made in their design for their eventual

2 Id. pp. 293-300, and plate 9, figs. 11 and 12.

prolongation to deep water at the mouth of the estuary, to ensure the formation of a stable, continuous, navigable channel. Experiments with a model, moulded to the configuration of the estuary under consideration and reproducing in miniature the tidal ebb and flow and fresh-water discharge over a bed of very fine sand, in which various lines of training walls can be successively inserted,1 are capable in some cases of furnishing valuable indications of the respective effects and comparative merits of the different schemes proposed for works which have often evoked very conflicting opinions and have sometimes produced most unexpected results. (L. F. V.-H.)

RIVER-HOG, a sportsman's name for the African wild pigs of which the southern representative is known to the Boers as the bosch-vark ("bush-pig "). They constitute a genus, Potamochoerus, nearly allied to the typical pigs of the genus Sus (see SWINE), from which they are distinguishable by the presence in the males of a long horny ridge below the eye; while they are further characterized by their thick coat of bristly and often brightly coloured hair, and by tufts of long bristles at the tips of the elongated and pointed ears. The southern P. choeropotamus, of southern and east Africa, is typically a greyish-brown animal, but one of its eastern representatives is orange-red. In north-east Africa occurs the allied P. johnstoni, while in Kordofan and Abyssinia this is in turn replaced by P. hassama. The most remarkable member of the group is, however, the red river-hog, P. porcus, which is a heavy, short-legged species remarkable for its bright red colour, the great length of the ear-tufts and the white rings round the eyes. It is a native of the great forest-tracts, extending from Senegambia, Liberia and Angola on the W., to Monbuttu in the E. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of a small yellow-haired representative of the group (P. larvatus) in Madagascar, which evidently must have reached its present habitat from the mainland. (R. L.*) RIVERINA, a large tract of pastoral country between the rivers Murray and Darling in New South Wales, Australia. It gives name to the see of an Anglican bishop who has his seat at Hay. The chief towns are Deniliquin, Hay, Moulamein, Oxley and Booligal.

RIVERS, EARL, an English title held in succession by the families of Woodville or Wydeville, Darcy and Savage. In 1299 John Rivers, or de Ripariis, was summoned to parliament as a baron, and his son John was similarly summoned by Edward II. The earldom was created for Sir Richard Woodville in 1466 and remained in this family until 1491. (For the three earls of his line see below.) As borne by the Woodvilles the title was not derived from the name of a place, but from an ancient family name, Redvers, or Reviers, members of this family, whose arms are quartered on the Rivers shield, having been sometime earls of Devon.

From 1626 to his death in 1640 the earldom was held by Thomas Darcy, Viscount Colchester, from whom it descended by special remainder to his grandson John (c. 1610-1654), the son of his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1651) by her marriage with Sir Thomas Savage (d. 1635), who was created Viscount Savage in 1626. John's son Thomas (c. 1626–1694) was the 3rd earl, and his grandson Richard the 4th earl (see below). The title became extinct when John, the 5th earl, died about 1735. A new barony of Rivers, held by the family of Pitt and its later representative, that of Pitt-Rivers, was in existence from 1776 to 1880.

RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442-1483), statesman and patron of literature, and author of the first book printed on English soil, was born probably in 1442. He was the son of Richard de Wydeville and his wife, Jacquetta de Luxemburg, duchess of Bedford. His father was raised to the peerage in his son's infancy, and was made earl of Rivers in 1466. Anthony, who was knighted before he became of age, and fought at Towton in 1461, married the daughter of Lord Scales, and became a peer jure uxoris in 1462, two years after the death of that nobleman. Being lord of the Isle of Wight at the time, he was in 1467 appointed one of the ambassadors to treat with the duke of 1 Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 327-342, and plate 10.

Burgundy, and he exalted his office by challenging Anthony, comte de la Roche, the bastard of Burgundy, to single fight in what was one of the most famous tournaments of the age (see the elaborate narrative in Bentley's Excerpta Historica, 176– 182). In 1469 Anthony was promoted to be lieutenant of Calais and captain of the king's armada, while holding other honorary posts. His father and brother were beheaded after the battle of Edgecot, and he succeeded in August of that year to the earldom. He accompanied Edward in his temporary flight to the Continent, and on his return to England had a share in the victory of Barnet and Tewkesbury and defended London from the Lancastrians. In 1473 he became guardian and governor to the young prince of Wales, and for the next few years there was no man in England of greater responsibility or enjoying more considerable honours in the royal service. It is now that for the first time we become aware of Lord Rivers's literary occupations. His mother, the duchess, died in 1472, and his first wife in 1473; in 1475 and the following year he went on pilgrimage to the holy places of Italy; from this time forth there was a strong tincture of serious reflection thrown over his character; he was now, as we learn from Caxton, nominated "Defender and Director of the Siege Apostolic for the Pope in England." Caxton had in 1476 rented a shop in the Sanctuary at Westminster, and here had set up a printingpress. The first MS. which he undertook in London was one sent to him by "the noble and puissant lord, Lord Antone, Erle of Ryvyers," consisting of a translation into right good and fayr Englyssh" of Jean de Teonville's French version of a Latin work, a glorious fair mirror to all good Christian people." In 1477 Caxton brought out this book, as Dictes and Sayengis of the Philosophers, and it is illustrious as the first production of an English printing-press. To this succeeded the Moral Proverbs of Christine de Pisan, in verse, in 1478, and a Cordial, in prose, in 1479. The original productions of Lord Rivers, and, in particular, his Balades against the Seven Deadly Sins, are lost. In 1478 a marriage was arranged between him and Margaret, sister of King James III. of Scotland, but it was mysteriously broken off. Rivers began to perceive that it was possible to rise too high for the safety of a subject, and he is now described to us as one who conceiveth well the mutability and the unstableness of this life." After the death of Edward IV., he became the object of Richard III.'s peculiar enmity, and was beheaded by his orders at Pontefract on the 25th of June 1483. He was succeeded by his brother Richard, the 3rd and last earl of the Wydeville family, who died in 1491. Lord Rivers is spoken of by Commines as “un trèsgentil chevalier," and by Sir Thomas More as " a right honourable man, as valiant of hand as politic in counsel." His protection and encouragement of Caxton were of inestimable value to English literature, and in the preface to the Dictes the printer gives an account of his own relations with the statesman which illustrates the dignity and modesty of Lord Rivers in a very agreeable way. Rivers was one of the purest writers of English prose of his time.

"

"Memoirs of Anthony, Earl Rivers are comprised in the Historical Illustrations of the Reign of Edward the Fourth (ed. W. H. B[lack]). (E. G.)

RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660–1712), was the second son of Thomas, 3rd earl; and after the death about 1680 of his elder brother Thomas, styled Viscount Colchester, he was designated by that title until he succeeded to the peerage. Early in life Richard Savage acquired notoriety by his dare-devilry and dissipation, and he was, too, one of the most conspicuous rakes in the society of the period. After becoming Lord Colchester on his brother's death he entered parliament as member for Wigan in 1681 and procured a commission in the Horseguards under Sarsfield in 1686. He was "the first nobleman and one of the first persons who joined the prince of Orange on his landing in England, and he accompanied William to London. Obtaining promotion in the army, he served with distinction in Ireland and in the Netherlands, and was made major-general in 1693 and XXIII. 13

Quick or the Dead? (1888); she married John A. Chanler in 1888, and after their divorce married in 1896 Prince Pierre Troubetzkoy of Russia.

RIVET (0. Fr. rivet, from river, to fix, fasten together, of unknown origin; Skeat compares Icel. rija, to stitch together), a metal pin or bolt used to fasten metal plates together. A rivet, made of wrought iron, copper or other malleable substance, is usually made with a head at one end, the other end being hammered out after passing through the plates so as to keep them closely fastened together). A bolt differs from a rivet in that one or both ends have screw-threads to hold a nut (see SHIPBUILDING).

RIVIERA, the narrow belt of coast which lies between the mountains and the sea all round the Gulf of Genoa in the north of Italy, extending from Nice on the W. to Spezia on the E. It is usually spoken of as Riviera di Ponente ("the coast of the setting sun "), the portion between Nice and the city of Genoa; and as Riviera di Levante ("the coast of the rising sun"), the portion from Genoa to Spezia. All this district, being open to the S. and sheltered from the N. and E. winds, enjoys a remarkably mild climate (winter mean, about 49° Fahr.); so much so that the vegetation in many places partakes of a subtropical character (e.g. the pomegranate, agave, prickly pear, date, palm and banana). Large numbers of flowers, especially roses, violets, hyacinths, &c., are grown near Nice, Mentone, Bordighera and other towns, and sent to the London and Paris markets. Bordighera is particularly noted for its noble groves of date-palms, one of the few places in Europe where these trees grow. The uncommon mildness of the climate, conjoined with the natural beauty of the coast scenery, the steep sea-crags, the ruined towers and the range of the Maritime Alps,-attracts thousands of invalids and convalescents to spend the winter in the chain of towns and villages which stretch from the one end of the Riviera to the other, while these resorts are frequented for sea-bathing in summer by the Italians. Proceeding from W. to E. the following are the places to which visitors principally resort: Nice, Monaco (an independent principality), Monte Carlo, Mentone (the last town on the French Riviera), Ventimiglia, Bordighera, Ospedaletti, San Remo, Porto Maurizio, Oneglia, Diano Marina, Alassio, Arenzano, Pegli (in the Riviera di Ponente), and Nervi, Santa Margherita, Rapallo, Chiavari, Sestri Levante, Levanto, Spezia, and San Terenzo (Lerici) in the Riviera di Levante. The Riviera labours, however, under the grave drawback of being liable to earthquakes. In the 19th century there were four such visitations, in 1818, 1831, 1854 and 1887, which especially affected the western Riviera. A railway runs close along the shore all through the Riviera, the distance from Nice to Genoa being 116 m., and the distance from Genoa to Spezia 56 m. In the latter stretch the line burrows through the many projecting headlands by means of more than eighty tunnels. The pearl of the eastern Riviera is the stretch (6 to 7 m.) between Rapallo and Chiavari. Lord Byron and Shelley both lived and wrote on the shores of the Gulf of Spezia, and

Dickens wrote The Chimes at Genoa.

RIVIERE, BRITON (1840- ), English artist, was born in London on the 14th of August 1840. His father, William Riviere, was for some years drawing-master at Cheltenham College, and afterwards an art teacher at Oxford. He was educated at Cheltenham College and at Oxford, where he took his degree in 1867. For his art training he was indebted almost entirely to his father, and early in life made for himself a place of importance among the artists of his time. His first pictures appeared at the British Institution, and in 1857 he exhibited three works at the Royal Academy, but it was not until 1863 that he became a regular contributor to the Academy exhibitions. In that year he was represented by "The Eve of the Spanish Armada," and in 1864 by a "Romeo | and Juliet." Subjects of this kind did not, however, attract him long, for in 1865 he began, with a picture of a Sleeping Deerhound," that series of paintings of animal-subjects which has since occupied him almost exclusively. Among the most

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The Poacher's Nurse

memorable of his productions are: (1866), “Circe" (1871), · Daniel " (1872), "The Last of the Garrison" (1875), "Lazarus" (1877), "Persepolis " (1878), "In Manus Tuas, Domine" (1879), "The Magician's Doorway" (1882), "Vae Victis" (1885), "Rizpah" (1886). An Old-World Wanderer" (1887), "Of a Fool and his Folly there is no End" (1889), “ A Mighty Hunter before the Lord (1891), "The King's Libation" (1893), "Beyond Man's Footsteps" (1894), now in the National Gallery of British Art-; "Phoebus Apollo" (1895); Aggravation (1896). "St George" (1900), and "To the Hills (1901). He has also painted portraits; and at the outset of his career made some mark as an illustrator, beginning with Punch. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1878, and R.A. in 1881, and received the degree of D.C.L. at Oxford in 1891. See Sir Walter Armstrong, Briton Riviere, R.A.; His Life and Work," Art Annual (1891). RIVINGTON, CHARLES (1688-1742), British publisher, was born at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in 1688. Coming to London as apprentice to a bookseller, he took over in 1711 the publishing business of Richard Chiswell (1639-1711), and, at the sign of the Bible and the Crown in Paternoster Row, he carried on a business almost entirely connected with theological and educational literature. He also published one of Whitefield's earliest works, and brought out an edition of the Imitation of Christ. In 1736 Rivington founded the company of booksellers who called themselves the "New Conger," in rivalry with the older association, the "Conger," dating from about 1700. In 1741 he published the first volume of Richardson's Pamela. Charles Rivington died on the 22nd of February 1742, and was succeeded by his two sons, John (1720-1792) and James (1724-1802). James emigrated to America, and pursued his trade in New York (see NEWSPAPERS, U.S.A.); John carried on the business on the lines marked out by his father, and was the great Church of England publisher of the day. In 1760 he was appointed publisher to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the firm retained the agency for over seventy years. Having admitted his sons Francis (1745-1822) and Charles (1754-1831) into partnership he undertook for the "New Conger" Association the issue of a standard edition of the works of Shakespeare, Milton, Locke and other British classics; also Cruden's Concordance. John Rivington died on the 16th of January 1792. In 1810 John (1779-1841), the eldest son of Francis, was admitted a partner. In 1827 George (1801-1858) and Francis (1805-1885), sons of Charles Rivington, joined the firm. Rivington contracted further ties with the High Church party by the publication (1833, &c.) of Tracts for the Times. John Rivington died on the 21st of November 1841, his son, John Rivington (18121886) having been admitted a partner in 1836. George Rivington died in 1858; and in 1859 Francis Rivington retired, leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of John Rivington and his own sons, Francis Hansard (b. 1834) and Septimus (b. 1846). In 1890 the business was sold to Messrs Longmans (q.v.). A business of the same character was, however, carried on from 1889 to 1893 by Mr Septimus Rivington and Mr John Guthrie Percival, as Percival & Co. This was changed in 1893 to Rivington, Percival & Co.; and in 1897 the firm revived its earlier title of Rivington & Co., maintaining its reputation for educational works and its connexion with the Moderate and High Church party.

See The House of Rivington, by Septimus Rivington (1894); also the Publishers' Circular (15th January 1885, 2nd June 1890).

RIVOLI VERONESE, a village of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, on a hill on the right bank of the Adige, 13 m. N.W. of Verona, 617 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 1340. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle in which, on the 15th of January 1797, Napoleon inflicted a decisive. defeat upon the Austrians commanded by Josef Alvintzi, Baron von Barberek (1735-1810) (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). A famous street in Paris (Rue de Rivoli) commemorates