silver, ivory, bronze and marble, mostly the production of the best Greek artists, which adorned this magnificent group of buildings, must have made it the chief glory of this splendid city. This temple was begun by Augustus in 36 B.C., after his Sicilian victory over Sextus Pompeius, and dedicated on the 9th of October 28 B.C.2 A glowing account of the splendours of these buildings is given by Propertius (ii. 2, iii. 31). Inside the cella were statues of Apollo between Latona and Diana by Scopas, Cephisodotus and Timotheus respectively (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 24, 25, 32); beneath the base of the group were preserved the Sibylline books. The pediment had sculpture by Bupalus and Archermus of Chios (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 13), and on the apex was Apollo in a quadriga of gilt bronze. The double door was covered with ivory reliefs of the death of the Niobids and the defeat of the Gauls at Delphi. The Ancyran inscription records that Augustus melted down eighty silver statues of himself and with the money "offered golden gifts to this temple, dedicating them both in his own name and in the names of the original donors of the statues.3 The Sibylline books were preserved under the statue of Apollo (Suet. Aug. 31); and within the cella were vases, tripods and statues of gold and silver, with a collection of engraved gems dedicated by Marcellus (see Plin. H.N. xxxvii. 11, Xxxiv. 14). In the porticus was a large library, with separate departments for Latin and Greek literature, and a large hall where the senate occasionally met (Tac. Ann. ii. 37). Round the porticus, between the Numidian marble columns, were statues of the fifty Danaids, and opposite them their fifty bridegrooms on horseback (see Schol. on Pers. ii. 56). In the centre, before the steps of the temple, stood an altar surrounded by four oxen, the work of Myron (Prop. iii. 31. 5). In the centre of the Palatine stood the palace of Augustus, built in the years following 36 B.C., and renewed after a fire in A.D. 3. It contained a small temple of Vesta (C.I.L. i. p. 317), dedicated on the 28th of April 12 B.C., when Augustus was elected pontifex maximus. Augustus's building was completely transformed by later emperors, but the name domus Augustana was retained in official use. The Area Apollinis and its group of buildings suffered in the fire of Nero, and were restored by Domitian. The whole was finally destroyed in the great fire of 363 (Ammian. xxiii. 3, 3), but the Sibylline books were saved.

To the north-west of the Area Palatina stood the Domus Tiberiana, a palace built by Tiberius on substructures of concrete which crown the north-west slope of the hill and form a platform now occupied Domus by the Farnese gardens, overlooking the Clivus Victoriae. TiberiCaligula is said to have added to this palace on the side ana. towards the Forum, making the temple of Castor into a vestibule, and to have connected it with the Capitol by a bridge whose piers were found by the temple of Augustus and the Basilica Julia; but this was destroyed after his death. At a later time the palace was extended so as to include the northern angle of the Palatine, which had once been covered with private houses. Among these were the dwellings of Q. Lutatius Catulus, Q. Hortensius, Scaurus, Crassus (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 3, 24), whose house was afterwards bought by Cicero. Many other wealthy Romans had houses on this part of the Palatine. The part now existing is little more than the gigantic substructure built to raise the principal rooms to the level of the top of the hill. The lowest parts of these face the Nova Via, opposite the Atrium Vestae, and many storeys of small vaulted rooms built in mixed brick and opus reticulatum rise one above the other to the higher levels. The palace extends over the Clivus Victoriae, supported on lofty arches so as to leave the road unblocked; many travertine or marble stairs lead to the upper rooms, some starting from the Nova Via, others from the Clivus Victoriae. A large proportion of these substructures consist of dark rooms, some with no means of lighting, others with scanty borrowed light. Many small rooms and stairs scarcely 2 ft. wide can only have been used by slaves. The ground floors on the Nova Via and the Clivus Victoriae appear to have been shops, judging from their wide openings, with travertine sills, grooved for the wooden fronts with narrow doors, which Roman shops seem always to have had-very like those now used in the East. The upper and principal rooms were once richly decorated with marble linings, columns and mosaics; but little of these now remains. The upper part of the palace, that above the Clivus Victoriae, is faced wholly with brickwork, no opus reticulatum being used as in the lower portions by the Nova Via. This marks a difference of date, and this is confirmed by the occurrence of brick stamps of the 2nd century A.D.

1 TEMPLVM. APOLLINIS. IN. SOLO. MAGNAM. PARTEM. EMPTO. FECI (Mon. Anc. 4, 1).

* See Dio Cass. xlix. 15, liii. 1, and C.I.L. 1.2 p. 331.

See also Suet. Aug. 52 whose account is rather different.

4 Schol. to Juv. 1. 128, and Suet. Aug. 29.

Cic. Pro Domo, 43; Val. Max. vi. 3, I; and see Becker, Handb. i. p. 423.

At this point the Palatine is cut away into four stages like gigantic steps; the lowest is the floor of the Atrium Vestae, the second the Nova Via, the third the Clivus Victoriae, and the top of the hill forms the fourth.

Flavian

Palace.

This

The next great addition to the buildings of the Palatine was the magnificent suite of state apartments built by Domitian, over a deep natural valley running across the hill (see Plan). The valley was filled up and the level of the new palace raised to a considerable height above the natural soil. Remains of a house, decorated with painting and rich marbles. exist under Domitian's peristyle, partly destroyed by the foundations of cast concrete which cut right through it. The floor of this house shows the original level, far below that of the Flavian palace. building is connected with the palace of Caligula by a branch subterranean passage leading into the earlier crypto-porticus. It consists of a block of state-rooms, in the centre of which is a large open peristyle, with columns of oriental marble, at one end of which is the grand triclinium with magnificent paving of opus sectile in red and green basalt and coloured marbles, a piece of which is well preserved; next to the triclinium, on to which it opens with large windows, is a nymphaeum or room with marble-lined fountain and recesses for plants and statues. On the opposite side of the peristyle is a large throne-room, the walls of which were adorned with rows of pavonazzetto and giallo columns and large marble niches, in which were colossal statues of porphyry and basalt; at one side of this is the basilica, with central nave and apse and narrow aisles, over which were galleries. The apse, in which was the emperor's throne, is screened off by open marble cancelli, a part of which still exists. It is of great interest as showing the origin of the Christian basilica (see BASILICA). On the other side of the throne-room is the lararium, with altar and pedestal for a statue; next to this is the grand staircase, which led to the upper rooms, now destroyed. The whole building, both floor and walls, was covered with the richest oriental marbles. Outside were colonnades or porticus, on one side of cipollino, on the other of travertine, the latter stuccoed and painted. The magnificence of the whole, crowded with fine Greek sculpture and covered with polished marbles of the most brilliant colours, is difficult now to realize; a glowing description is given by Statius (Silv. iv. 11, 18; see also Plut. Poplic. 15, and Mart. viii. 36). Doors were arranged in the throne-room and basilica so that the emperor could slip out unobserved and reach by a staircase (g on Plan) the crypto-porticus which communicates with Caligula's palace. The vault of this passage was covered with mosaic of mixed marble and glass, a few fragments of which still remain; its walls were lined with rich marbles; it was lighted by a series of windows in the springing of the vault. This, as well as the Flavian palace, appears to have suffered more than once from fire, and in many places important restorations of the time of Severus, and some as late as the 4th century, are evident. In 1720-28 extensive excavations were made here for the Farnese duke of Parma, and an immense quantity of statues and marble architectural fragments were discovered, many of which are now at Naples and elsewhere. Among them were sixteen beautiful fluted columns of pavonazzetto and giallo, fragments of the basalt statues, and an immense door-sill of Pentelic marble, now used for the high altar of the Pantheon ; these all came from the throne-room. The excavations were carried on by Bianchini, who published a book on the subject.8

Domus

Geloti

апа.

In the middle of the slopes of the Palatine, towards the Circus Maximus, are considerable remains of buildings set against the early wall and covering one of its projecting spurs, consisting in a series of rooms with a long Corinthian colonnade. The rooms were partly marble-lined and partly decorated with painted stucco, on which are incised a number of interesting inscriptions and rude drawings. Here, in 1856, was found the celebrated caricature of the Crucified Christ, now in the Museo Kircheriano. The inscription CORINTHVS. EXIT. DE. PEDAGOGIO suggests that this building was at one time used as a school, perhaps for the imperial slaves. 10 A number of soldiers' names also occur, e.g. HILARVS. MI.V.D. N. (Hilarus miles vestitor domini nostri ?); some are in mixed Latin and Greek characters. After one pair of names is inscribed PEREG, showing that they belonged to the corps called frumentarii stationed in the Castra Peregrinorum on the Caelian. Most of these inscriptions appear to be as early as the 1st century A.D.11 These interesting graffiti have in great part perished during the last few years. inscriptions found in the larger rooms seem to indicate that the imperial wardrobe found a place in them.

Some

To the south of the Flavian state-rooms, on the side of the hill overlooking the Circus, was a building with a central peristyle ("Palace of Domitian" on Plan), which was excavated in 1775 and

'The brick stamps on the tiles laid under the marble paving of the basilica have CN. DOMITI. AMANDI. VALEAT. QVI. FECIT.,the last three words a common augury of good luck stamped on bricks or amphorae.

8 Pal. dei Cesari (Verona, 1738); see Guattani, Not. di Antich. (1798).

See Kraus. Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin (Freiburg, 1872), and Becker, Das Spottcrucifix, &c. (Breslau, 1866).

10 The paedagogium was, however, on the Caelian. Huelsen suggests that it is here used as a slang term for a prison.

11 See Henzen, in the Bull. Inst., 1863, p. 72, and 1867, p. 113.

again partly laid bare in 1869 and the following years. This has often, but wrongly, been called the palace of Augustus; we should rather see in it the dwelling-rooms of the Flavian palace. Adjoining it is the so-called stadium of the Palatine ("Hippodromus' on Plan), begun by Domitian, enlarged by Hadrian, and much altered or restored by Severus. The greater part of the outer walls and the large exedra or apse at the side, with upper floor for the emperor's seat, are of the time of Hadrian, as is shown by the brick stamps, and the character of the brick facing, which much resembles that of the Flavian time (bricks 1 in. and joints in. thick). The stadium is surrounded with a colonnade of engaged shafts, forming a sort of aisle with gallery over it. Except those at the curved end, which are of Hadrian's time, these piers are of the time of Severus, as are also all the flat piers along the outer wall,-one opposite each of those in the inner line. Severus restored the galleries after the great fire of A.D. 191. This building was the hippodromus Palatii; the word here means, not a racecourse, but a garden (Plin. Epp. 5, 6, 19). In addition to the stadium, Hadrian built a number of very

In parts of the outer wall brick stamps of the Flavian period appear, e.g. FLAVI. AVG. L. CLONI-" [A brick] of Flavius Clonus, freedman of Augustus" (C.I.L. xv. 1149).

Emery Walker st.

handsome rooms, forming a palace on the south-east side and at the south-west end of the stadium. These rooms were partly destroyed and partly hidden by the later palace of Severus, the Hadrian's foundations of which in many places cut through and palace. render useless the highly decorated rooms of Hadrian. The finest of these which is now visible is a room with a large window opening into the stadium near the south angle; it has intersecting barrel vaults, with deep coffers, richly ornamented in stucco. The oval structure shown in the plan (fig. 10), with other still later additions, belongs to the 6th century; in its walls, of opus mixtum, are found brick stamps of the reign of Theodoric, c. 500. The palace of Septimius Severus was very extensive and of enormous height; it extends not only all over the south angle of the Palatine but also a long way into the valley of the Circus Palace of Maximus and towards the Coelian. This part (like Severus. Caligula's palace) is carried on very lofty arched substructures, so as to form a level, uniform with the top of the hill, on which the grand apartments stood. The whole height from the base of the Palatine to several storeys above its summit must have been enormous. Little now remains of the highest storeys, except part of a grand staircase which led to them. Extensive baths, originally decorated with marble linings and mosaics in glass and

"

marble, cover a great part of the top of the hill. These and other parts of the Palatine were supplied with water by an aqueduct built by Nero in continuation of the Claudian aqueduct, some arches of which still exist on the slope of the Palatine (" Aqua Claudia on Plan) (see Spart. Sept. Sev. 24). One of the main roads up to the Palatine passes under the arched substructures of Severus, and near this, at the foot of the hill, at the south angle, Septimius Severus built an outlying part of his palace, a building of great splendour called the Septizodium, or House of the Seven Planets. Part of the Septizodium existed as late as the reign of Sixtus V. (1585-90), who destroyed it in order to use its marble decorations and columns in the new basilica of St Peter; drawings of it are given by Du Pérac, Vestigj di Roma (1575), pl. 13, and in other works of that century.2

The name Palatium seems to have originally denoted the southern height of the Palatine hill, while the summit overlooking the Velabrum was called Cermalus, and the saddle connecting the Velia and Palatine and the Esquiline on which the temple of Venus

Cermalus. and Rome and the arch of Titus now stand bore the name Velia.3 It is evident that this was once higher than it is now; a great part of it was cut away when the level platform for the temple of Venus and Rome was formed. The foundations of part of Nero's palace along the road between this temple and the Esquiline are exposed for about 20 to 30 ft. in height, showing a corresponding lowering of the level here, and the bare tufa rock, cut to a flat surface, is visible on the site of Hadrian's great temple; that the Velia was once much loftier is also indicated by the story of the removal of Valerius Publicola's dwelling.

Sacra Via.

"

The arch of Titus, erected in memory of that emperor's subjugation of the Jews, but not completed until after his death, stands at the point where the Sacra Via crosses the Velia; Arch of it is possible that it once stood farther to the east and Titus. was removed to its present position when the temple of Venus and Rome was built. The well-known reliefs of the archway depict the Jewish triumph and the spoils of the Temple. In the middle ages the arch was converted into a fortress by the Frangipani; their additions were removed and the arch restored in its present shape in 1821. On the Velia and the adjoining Summa Sacra Via were the temples of the Lares and Penates which Augustus rebuilt. The Aedes Larum is probably distinct from the " Sacellum Larum mentioned by Tacitus (Ann. xii. 24) as one of the points in the line of the original pomerium. The temple of Jupiter Stator, traditionally vowed by Romulus during his repulse by the Sabines (Liv. i. 12), stood near the Porta Mugonia, Temple of and therefore near the road leading up to the Palatine Jupiter Sacra Via. To the south-east of the arch of Titus (see Stator. Plan) are the remains of a concrete podium which may have belonged to this temple in its latest form; and Comm. Boni discovered (in 1907) some early tufa walling close to the abovenamed arch in which he recognized the foundations of the early temple. Augustus rebuilt the temple of Victory, which Temple of gave its name to the Clivus Victoriae; this temple stood Victory. on the site of a prehistoric altar (Dionys. i. 32), and was more than once rebuilt,-e.g. by L. Postumius, 294 B.C. (Liv. x. 33). In 193 B.C. an aedicula to Victory was built near it by M. Porcius Cato (Liv. xxxv. 9). Remains of the temple and a dedicatory inscription were found in 17287 not far from the church of S. Teodoro; the temple was of Parian marble, with Corinthian columns of Numidian giallo antico. The Sacra Via started at the Sacellum Streniae, an unknown point on the Esquiline, probably in the valley of the Colosseum (Varro, L.L. v. 47), in the quarter called Cerolia. Thence it probably (in later times) passed round part of the Colosseum to the slope leading up to the arch of Titus on the Velia; this piece of its course is lined on one side by remains of private houses, and farther back, against the cliff of the Palatine, are the substructures of the Area Apollinis. From the arch of Titus or Summa Sacra Via the original line of the road has been altered, probably when the temple of Venus and Rome was built by Hadrian. Its later course passed at a sharp angle from the arch

1 The form Septizonium is also found.

2 See Huelsen, Das Septizonium des Septimius Severus (Berlin, 1886); Maass, Die Tagesgötter in Rom und den Provinzen (Berlin, 1902).

3

"Huic (Palatio) Germalum et Velias conjunxerunt 'Germalum'a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad ficum Ruminalem ibi inventi (Varro, L.L. v. 54).

Liv. ii. 7; Cic. Rep. ii. 31'; see also Ascon. Ad Cic. in Pis. 52. 5 AEDEM. LARVM. IN. SVMMA. SACRA. VIA. AEDEM. DEVM. PENATIVM. IN. VELIA FECI (Mon. Anc.).

Dionys. ii. 50; see also Plut. Cic. 16; Óv. Fast. vi. 793, and Trist. iii. I, 131. Near this temple, and also near the Porta Mugonia, was the house of Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 41; Solin. i. 24). Owing to the strength of its position this temple was more than once selected during troubled times as a safe meeting-place for the Senate; it was here, as being a "'locus munitissimus," that Cicero delivered his First Catiline Oration (see Cic. In Cat. i. 1).

? See Bianchini, Pal. dei Cesari (1738), p. 236, pl. viii.

of Titus to the front of Constantine's basilica, and on past the temple of Faustina. It is uncertain whether the continuation of this road to the arch of Severus was in later times called the Sacra Via or whether it rejoined its old line along the Basilica Julia by the cross-road in front of the Aedes Julii. Its original line past the temple of Vesta was completely built over in the 3rd and 4th centuries, and clumsily fitted pavements of marble and travertine Occupy the place of the old basalt blocks. The course of the Nova Via (see Plan) along the north-east slope of the Palatine 10 was exposed in 1882-84. According to Varro (L.L. vi. 59) it was a very old road. It led up from the Velabrum, probably winding along the slope of the Palatine, round the north angle above the church of S. Maria Antiqua. The rest of its course, gently ascending towards the arch of Titus, is now exposed, as are also the stairs which connected it with the Clivus Victoriae at the northern angle of the Palatine; a continuation of these stairs led down to the Forum.11

Vela

The extent of the once marshy Velabrum (Gr. Féλos) is not known, though part of its site is indicated by the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro; Varro (L.L. vi. 24) says, “extra urbem antiquam fuit, non longe a porta Romanula." It was a district full of shops (Plaut. Capt. 489; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 30). The Vicus Tuscus on its course from the Forum to the Circus skirted the Velabrum (Dionys. v. 26), from which the goldsmiths' arch was an entrance into the Forum Boarium.

brum.

From the S.W. end of the Velabrum the Clivus Victoriae rose in a gradual ascent along the slope of the Palatine and ultimately wound round the northern angle.

Capitoline Hill 12

inus.

The Capitoline hill, once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L.L. v. 42), consists of two peaks, the Capitolium and the Arx,13 with an intermediate valley (Asylum). The older name of the Capitolium was Mons Tarpeius (Varro, L.L. v. 41). Livy (i. io) mentions the founding of a shrine to Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitolium by Romulus ; 14 this summit was afterwards occupied by the great triple temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno Temple of and Minerva, a triad of deities worshipped under the Jupiter names of Tinia, Thalna and Menrva in every Etruscan Capitolcity. This great temple was (Liv. i. 38, 53) founded by Tarquin I., built by his son Tarquin II., and dedicated by M. Horatius Pulvillus, consul suffectus in 509 B.C.15 It was built in the Etruscan style, of peperino stuccoed and painted (Vitr. iii. 3), with wooden architraves, wide intercclumniations and painted terra-cotta statues.16 It was rebuilt many times; the original temple lasted till it was burnt in 83 B.C.; it was then refounded in marble by Sulla, with Corinthian columns stolen from the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (Plin. xxxvi. 4, 5), and was completed and dedicated by Q. Lutatius Catulus, whose name appeared on the front. Augustus, although he restored it at great expense (Mon. Anc. 4, 9), did not introduce his name by the side of that of Catulus. It was again burnt by the Vitellian rioters in A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian in 71.17 Lastly, it was burnt in the three days' fire of Titus's reign 18 and rebuilt with columns of Pentelic marble by Domitian; the gilding alone of this last rebuilding is said to have cost 2 millions sterling (Plut. Publ. 15). Extensive substructures of tufa have been exposed on the eastern peak; in 1875 a fragment of a fluted column was found, of such great size that it could only have belonged to the temple of Jupiter; and a few other architectural fragments have been discovered at different times. The western limit of the temple was determined in 1865, its eastern limit in 1875, and the S.E. angle in 1896.

8 See Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom. i. 2, 274-91. See Solinus (i. 24) and Varro (ap. Gell. xvi. 17), who mention its two ends, summa and infima (cf. Liv. v. 32).

10 See Not. d. Scavi (1882), p. 234. Original level laid bare, 1904. 11 See marble plan on Plate VII. and cf. Ov. Fast. vi. 395.

12 See Rodocanachi, Le Capitole romain (1903; Eng. trans., 1906). 13 The first-named was the southern, the second the northern summit.

14 This is the earliest temple mentioned in Roman history. It was rebuilt by Augustus (Mon. Anc. 4, 5).

15 See Plut. Publ. 14; C.I.L. i. p. 487; Liv. ii. 8. Dionys. v. 35 wrongly gives 507 B.C.

16 Plin. xxxv 157; see Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Val. Max. v. 10.

17 Suet. Vit. 15, and Vesp. 8; cf. Tac. Hist. iv. 53, and Dio Cass. Ixvi. 10.

18 Suet. Dom. 5; Dio Cass. lxvi. 24.

It appears that the figures given by Dionysius (iv. 61) for the area are slightly too large. The true measurements were 188 x 204 Roman ft. The temple is represented on many coins, both republican and imperial; these show that the central cella was that of Jupiter, that of Minerva on his right and of Juno on his left. The door was covered with gold reliefs, which were stolen by Stilicho (c. 400; Zosim. v. 38), and the gilt bronze tiles (cf. Plin. xxxiii. 57) on the roof were partly stripped off by Geiseric in 455 (Procop. Bell. Vand. 1. 5), and the rest by Pope Honorius I. in 630 (Marliani, Topogr. ii. 1). Till 1348, when the steps up to Ara Coeli were built, there was no access to the Capitol from the back; hence the three ascents to it mentioned by Livy (iii. 7, v. 26-28) and Tacitus (Hist. iii. 71-72) were all from the inside of the Servian circuit. Even on this inner side it was defended by a wall, the gates in which are called "Capitolii fores " by Tacitus. Part of the outer wall at the top of the tufa rock, which is cut into a smooth cliff, is visible from the modern Vicolo della Rupe Tarpeia; this cliff is traditionally called the Tarpeian rock, but that must have been on the other side towards the Forum, from whence it was visible, as is clearly stated by Dionysius (vii. 35, viii. 78).3 Another piece of the ancient wall has been exposed, about half-way up the slope from the Forum to the Arx. It is built of soft yellow tufa blocks, five courses of which still remain in the existing fragment. The large temple of Juno Moneta ("the Adviser") on the Arx, built by Camillus in 384 B.C., was used as the mint; hence moneta: money" (Liv. vi. 20). A large number of other temples and smaller shrines stood on the Capitoline hill, a word used broadly to include both the Capitolium and the Arx.4 Among these were the temple of Honos and Virtus, built by Marius, and the temple of Fides, founded by Numa, and rebuilt during the First Punic war. Both these were large enough to hold meetings of the senate. The temples of Mars Ultor (Mon. Anc. 4, 5) and Jupiter Tonans (Suet. Aug. 29; Mon. Anc. 4, 3) were built by Augustus. Other shrines existed to Venus Victrix Ops, Jupiter Custos, and Concord-the last under the Arx (Liv. xxii. 33) and many others, as well as a triumphal arch in honour of Nero, and a crowd of statues and other works of art (see Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 9, xxxiv. 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 79, xxxv. 69, 100, 108, 157), so that the whole hill must have been a mass of architectural and artistic magnificence.

Tabularium.

=

The so-called Tabularium occupies the central part of the side towards the Forum; it is set on the tufa rock, which is cut away to receive its lower storey. It derives its name from an inscription which remained in situ until the 15th century (C.I.L. vi. 1314); whilst all public departments had their tabularia, this was a central Record Office, where copies of laws, treaties, &c., were preserved. It was built by Catulus, who was also the dedicator of the great temple of Jupiter (Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Dio Cass. xliii. 14), consul in 78 B.C. Its outer walls are of sperone, its inner ones of tufa; the Doric arcade has capitals, imposts and entablature of travertine. Above the arcade was a gallery or porticus, faced with a Corinthian colonnade, of which a few architectural members have been found. The columns

appear to have belonged to the 1st century A.D. A road paved with basalt passes through the building along this arcade, entered at one end from the Clivus Capitolinus, and at the other probably from the Gradus Monetae, a flight of steps leading from the temple of Concord and the Forum up to the temple of Juno Moneta on the Arx. The entrance from the Clivus Capitolinus is by a wide flat arch of peperino beautifully jointed; the other end wall has been mostly destroyed. The back of this building overlooked the Asylum

1 See Bull. Comm. Arch. iii. (1875), p. 165; Mon. Inst. v. pl. xxxvi., x. pl. xxxa; Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom, i. 2, 69; Notizie degli Scavi, 1896, p. 161, 1897, p. 30; Richter, "Der kapitolinische Jupitertempel und der italische Fuss," in Hermes (1887), p. 17.

The pediment is shown on a relief now lost, but extant in the 16th century and reproduced in drawings of that date. It has been recently proved to have decorated the Forum of Trajan (Wace in Papers of the B.S.R. iv. p. 240, pl. xx.). The front of the temple is shown on one of the reliefs of Marcus Aurelius now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Papers of the B.S.R. iii. pl. xxvi.).

See Rodocanachi, The Roman Capitol, p. 50. A graceful account of the legend of Tarpeia is given by Propertius, Eleg. iv. 4.

A structure of great sanctity, dating from prehistoric Etruscan times, was the Auguraculum, an elevated platform upon the Arx, from which the signs in the heavens were observed by the augurs (see Festus, ed. Müller, p. 18).

5 On the Tabularium see Delbrück, Hellenistische Bauten in Latium, i. (1907), pp. 23–46.

it in an unfinished state in 46 B.C.) and completed by Augustus. Being built on a crowded site it was somewhat cramped, and the ground cost nearly a hundred million sesterces.8 Part of its circuit wall, with remains of five

Julium.

arches, exists in the Via delle Marmorelle; and behind is a row of small vaulted rooms, probably shops or offices. The arches are slightly cambered with travertine springers and keys; the rest, with the circular relieving arch over, is of tufa; it was once lined with slabs of marble, the holes for which exist. Foundations of the circuit wall exist under the houses towards S. Adriano, but the whole plan has not been made out. In the centre of the Forum stood the temple of Venus Genetrix, whose remains were seen and described by Palladio (Arch. iv. 31). This temple was vowed by Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus.

The forum of Augustus (see fig. 11) adjoined that of Julius on its north-east side; it contained the temple of Mars Ultor, built to commemorate the vengeance taken on Caesar's murderers Forum of

at Philippi, 42 B.C. (Ov. Fast. v. 575 seq.).10 It was Augustus.

surrounded with a massive wall of peperino, over 100 ft. high, with travertine string-courses and cornice; a large piece of this wall still exists, and is one of the most imposing relics of ancient Rome. Against it are remains of the temple of Mars, three columns of which, with their entablature and marble ceiling of the peristyle, are still standing; it is Corinthian in style, very richly decorated, and built of fine Luna marble. The cella is of peperino, lined with marble; and the lower part of the lofty circuit wall seems also to have been lined with marble on the inside of the forum. The large archway by the temple (Arco dei Pantani) is of travertine. Palladio (Arch. iv.) and other writers of the 16th century give plans of the temple and circuit wall, showing much more than now exists. The temple, which was octastyle, with nine columns and a pilaster on the sides, occupied the centre, and on each side the circuit wall formed two large semicircular apses, decorated with tiers of niches for statues."1

Forum Pacis.

The Forum Pacis, built by Vespasian, was farther to the southeast; the only existing piece, a massive and lofty wall of mixed tufa and peperino, with a travertine archway, is opposite the end of the basilica of Constantine. The arch opened into the so-called Templum Sacrae Urbis, a rectangular building entered by a portico on its west side, whose north wall was decorated with a marble plan of the city of Rome (see below, p. 608). The original plan was probably burnt with the whole group of buildings in this forum in 191, in the reign of Commodus (Dio Cass. lxxii. 24); but a new plan was made, and the building restored in concrete and brick by Severus. The north end wall, with the clamps for fixing the marble plan, still exists, as does also the other (restored) end wall with its arched windows towards the forum; one hundred and sixty-seven fragments of this plan were found c. 1563 at the foot of the wall to which they were fixed, and are now preserved in the Capitoline Museum; drawings of seventy-four pieces now lost are preserved in the Vatican 12 (Cod. Vat. 3439). The whole of these fragments were published by Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae (Berlin, 1874). Other fragments have since been brought to light, and the whole series was rearranged in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in 1903. The circular building at the end facing on the Sacra Via is an addition built by Maxentius in honour of his deified son Romulus; like the other buildings of Maxentius, it was rededicated and inscribed with the name of his conqueror

The Porta Pandana (“ever-open gate") gave access from the Area Capitolina, upon which the temple of Jupiter stood, to the Tarpeian rock.

See Mon. Anc. (quoted above); Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 156, xxxvi. 103.

8 Cic. Ep. ad Att. iv. 16; Suet. Caes. 26; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 103. See Dio Cass. xliii. 22; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 102; Vitr. iii. 3 Plut. Caes. 60.

10 The Ancyran inscription records-IN. PRIVATO SOLO.[EMPITO. MARTIS ULTORIS. TEMPLVM. FORVMQVE. AVGVSTVM. EX. [MANIJBIIS. FECI. See Suet. Aug. 29, 56; Dio Cass. lvi. 27; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102, xxxv. 94, xxxiv. 48, vii. 183, where many fine Greek works of art are mentioned as being in the forum of Augustus. 11 Those of Roman leaders and generals, from Aeneas and Romulus to Augustus. See Borsari, Foro d'Augusto, &c. (1884).

12 An interesting description of this discovery is given by Vacca, writing in 1594 (see Schreiber in Berichte der sachs. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, 1881). The scale is roughly 1 to 250.

Constantine. The original building of Vespasian was probably an archive and record office; it was certainly not a temple. The fine bronze doors at the entrance to the temple of Romulus are much earlier than the building itself, as are also the porphyry columns and very rich entablature which ornament this doorway. Pope Felix IV. (526-30) made the double building into the church of SS. Cosmo e Damiano, using the circular domed temple of Romulus as a porch. The chief building of Vespasian's forum was the Templum Pacis,3 dedicated in 75, one of the most magnificent in Rome, which contained a very large collection of works of art.

The forum of Nerva (see fig. 11) occupied the narrow strip left between the fora of Augustus and Vespasian; being little more

than a richly decorated street, it was called the Forum Forum of Transitorium or Forum Palladium, from the temple to Nerva. Minerva which it contained. It was begun by Domitian, and dedicated by Nerva in 97 (see Suet. Dom. 5; Mart. i. 2, 8). Like the other imperial fora, it was surrounded by a peperino wall, not only lined with marble but also decorated with rows of Corinthian columns supporting a rich entablature with sculptured frieze. Two columns and part of this wall still exist; on the frieze are reliefs of weaving, fulling and various arts which were under the protection of Minerva. A great part of the temple existed till the time of Paul V., who in 1606 destroyed it to use the remains for the building of the Acqua Paola. In the reign of Severus Alexander a series of colossal bronze statues, some equestrian, were set round this forum; they represented all the previous emperors who had been deified, and by each was a bronze column inscribed with his res gestae (Hist. Aug.; Sev. Alex. 28).

The forum of Trajan with its adjacent buildings was the last and, at least in size, the most magnificent of all; it was in progress from 113 to 117, at least. A great spur of hill, which connected Forum of the Capitoline with the Quirinal, was cut away to make a Trajan. level site for this enormous group of buildings. It consisted (see fig. 11) of a large dipteral peristyle, with curved projections, lined with shops on the side. That against the slope of the Quirinal, three storeys high, still partly exists. The main entrance was through a triumphal arch (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 29). Aurei of Trajan show this arch and other parts of his forum. The opposite side was occupied by the Basilica Ulpia (Jordan, F.U.R. iii. 25, 26), part of which, with the column of Trajan, is now visible; none of the columns, which are of grey granite, are in situ, and the whole restoration is misleading. Part of the rich paving in oriental marble is genuine. This basilica contained two large libraries (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16; Aul. Gell. xi. 17).

1 For accounts of this group of buildings, see De Rossi, Bull. Arch. Crist. (1867), pp. 66 ff.; and Lanciani, Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. (1882), pp. 29 ff.

in

2" Hic (Felix) fecit basilicam SS. Cosmae et Damiani Via Sacra, juxta Templum Urbis Romae " (Lib. Pont., Vita S. Felicis IV.). By the last words the basilica of Constantine is meant.

3 Statues by Pheidias and Lysippus existed in the Forum Pacis as late as the 6th century (Procop. Bell. Goth. iv. 21).

4 Drawings of it are given by Du Pérac and Palladio (Arch. iv. 8).

5 See Aul. Gell. xiii. 25, 2; and Amm. Marc. xvi. 10, 15.

The Columna Cochlis (so called from its spiral stairs) is, including capital and base, 97 ft. 9 in. high, i.e. 100 Roman ft.; its pedestal has reliefs of trophies of Dacian arms, and winged Victories. Trajan's On the shaft are reliefs arranged spirally in twenty-three column. tiers, scenes of Trajan's victories, containing about 2500 figures. Trajan's ashes were buried in a gold urn under this column (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16); and on the summit was a colossal gilt bronze statue of the emperor, now replaced by a poor figure of St Peter, set there by Sixtus V. Beyond the column stood the temple of Trajan completed by Hadrian; its foundations exist under the buildings at the north-east side of the modern Temple of piazza, and many of its granite columns have been found. Trajan. This temple is shown on coins of Hadrian. The architect of this magnificent group of buildings was Apollodorus of Damascus (Dio Cass. Ixix. 4), who also designed many buildings in Rome during Hadrian's reign. In addition to the five imperial fora, and the Forum Magnum, Holitorium and Boarium, mentioned above, there were also smaller markets for pigs (Forum Suarium), bread (Forum Pistorium) and fish (Forum Piscarium), all of which, with some others, popularly but wrongly called fora, are given in the regionary catalogues.

Other Temples, &c.

Other

Besides the temples mentioned in previous sections remains of many others still exist in Rome. The circular temple by the Tiber, in the Forum Boarium (Plan, No. 5), formerly thought to be that of Vesta, is possibly that of Portunus, the god temples. of the harbour (Varro, L.L. vi. 19). Its design is similar to that of the temple of Vesta in the forum (fig. 8), and, except the entablature and upper part of the cella, which are gone, it is well

Its pedestal is inscribed, "Senatus Populusque Romanus Imp. Caesari Divi Nervae F. Nervae Trajano Aug. Germ. Dacico Pontif. Maximo Trib. Pot. XVII. [i.e. A.D. 113] Imp. VI. Cos. VI. P. P. ad declarandum quantae altitudinis mons et locus tantis operibus sit egestus." This would seem to indicate the height of the hill removed to form the site, and is so explained by Dion Cass. (lxviii. 16). It is impossible that the saddle connecting the Quirinal with the Capitoline hill can have been 100 ft. in height (Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 133), but it may be that the cliff of the Quirinal was cut back to a slope reaching to a point about 72 ft. high; thus the statement of the inscription is much exaggerated. Comm. Boni has found the remains of a road beneath the pavement of the Forum, near the column, and believes that the inscription refers to the height of the buildings. Comparetti refers mons to the mass of marble quarried to build the Forum; Sogliano to the mass of ruins and rubbish carted away; Mau to the Servian agger between the Capitol and Quirinal (see Rom. Mitth., 1907, 187 ff.)

For the reliefs, see Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssäule (18961900); Petersen, Trajans dakische Kriege (1899-1903); Stuart Jones, Papers of the B.R.S., vol. v. From their lofty position they are now difficult to see, but originally must have been very fairly visible from the galleries on the colonnades which once surrounded the column. 8 See Aul. Gell. xi. 17, 1; Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19; and compare Pausanias (v. 12, 6; x. 5, 11), who mentions the gilt bronze roofs of Trajan's forum.

See Richter and Grifi, Ristauro del Foro Trajano (1839).