the inventor to further developments of constructive skill. And it is pleasant to see how largely those classes for whose benefit the exhibition has principally been promoted, take advantage of the lessons it can teach. If some of the gilded youth of the "Second City" wander listlessly through the spacious rooms, heedless of their interesting contents, and the daughters of fashion find in them only the means of passing an idle hour, far different is it with the practical workman, carefully examining those exhibits which illustrate his own especial class of work. It is satisfactory to note the keenness of observation, the rapidity with which an idea is grasped, and the evident pleasure with which it is communicated to a less intelligent companion. We have nothing but praise for the way in which the exhibits are arranged, the careful grouping of the models greatly assisting the visitor to trace the gradual or rapid developments which shipbuilding has undergone, whether in olden or recent times. The first model is that of the Henri Grace de Dieu, the pioneer vessel of the British Navy, constructed by Henry VIII., and completed in 1514, before which period ships, engaged in warfare as well as in commerce, were fitted out by private enterprise. Great wonder, it is natural to believe, was excited in those days at the construction of this ship. She was 1,000 tons burden, and carried 700 men; but her most striking characteristic was the possession of four masts and a bowsprit, all square-rigged, no English ship before this time having ever possessed more than one mast. In this goodly company are also found models of the Royal George, which capsized whilst being careened at Spithead, with 800 men on board, in 1782; and of the Victory, the flagship of Lord Nelson, in the action at Trafalgar, on which occasion the Fleet were nerved to heroic deeds by the famous signal," England expects that every man will do his duty," since adopted as the watchword and motto of the SHIPWRECKED MARINERS' SOCIETY. Close by, too, is an interesting souvenir of the same vessel, namely, a model of fore-topsail, &c., made from canvas of fore-topsail on the Victory, during the same action. Another, also, as an example of perseverance and industry, will attract the curious; it is a model of the Melampus, a frigate taken from the French. The prisoners made the model whilst confined at Barnstaple, in Devonshire, and the hull is "framed, planked, ribbed, and equipped facsimile,” the rigging being spun of human hair. Passing rapidly a succession of models of war vessels, we observe Sir John Franklin's ill-fated ship the Terror; also the Eurydice, the Amazon, and the Captain, all by their misfortunes known to fame. And, not forgetting to note the changes in form and construction, we come to some of the powerful ironclads of modern or semi-modern days, remarkable among them being some beautiful models of the Glatton, Monarch, Northampton, Nelson, and Devastation, and arrive soon after before the most eccentric, though not most successful of war vessels, namely Admiral Popoff's circular ship Novgorod. The Lords of the Admiralty have lent, with no stinting hand, a large number of models of every kind and build of vessel; men-of-war of all classes, troopships, sloops-of-war, and gunboats. In this class, prominent among the exhibitors are the Messrs. Elder and Napier of Glasgow, Laird of Birkenhead, and Scott of Greenock. THE GREAT HARRY" AND THE "GREAT EASTERN." Leaving the fighting class of ships, the visitor has the opportunity afforded him of observing the gradual change in the form and capacity of sailing ships, and the various developments to meet the constantly increasing requirements, whether for passenger accommodation or the other exigencies, of an ever-growing commerce. The Viking's ship, discovered beneath a tumulus at Sandefjord, Norway, in 1880, has here its place, represented by photographs. The ship is 75 feet long, 16 feet broad, and has 20 ribs. It is believed to have been the buryingplace of some Norse sea-king, and as the tumulus dates from about the ninth century, the vessel is probably over a thousand years old. In the class of sailing vessels we have models of every build: full rigged ships, East Indiamen, the famous Aberdeen clippers, and the racing clippers of the tea trade; timber vessels, iron vessels, composite iron and wood vessels: models under sail and under bare poles, models in full, and in section, half models placed on a backing of looking-glass answering the purpose of a full model, a wonderful display of the progress of invention, and the perfection of constructive art. But not until we come to the steam class of vessels can we see, in full force, how great are the strides of modern invention. The splendid results of progressive, constructive, and inventive skill, brought down to the present date, are here placed in juxtaposition with the tentative efforts of early inventors; and the mighty improvements that have been effected can be seen at a glance, and may be accepted as an earnest of other and possibly greater ones yet to follow. Mr. W. J. Millar, C.E., Secretary of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, in a sketch of the "Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation," to which we are indebted for some of our information, gives some interesting particulars of the earliest known efforts to utilise steam for the propulsion of vessels. Amongst these, he says, is "the patent of Jonathan Hulls, in 1736, for a tow boat having a rotary paddle at its stern, driven by a steam apparatus placed in the body of the boat. Denis Papin, born 1647, appears to have invented a steamboat in 1707, in which he ascended the Weser. The boat, however, was destroyed by the people as an innovation of a doubtful character." A small steamer was started on Dalswinton Loch in 1788, attaining a speed of five miles an hour, and in the following year another, with a speed of seven miles, was tried on the Forth and Clyde Canal. In 1802, 1807, 1809, further efforts with some promise of success were made, both on Scottish waters and in America, and in 1812 the Comet, by Henry Bell, was started at Greenock, and ran between that port and Helensburgh. The history of the succeeding ten years' shipbuilding on the Clyde included fortyeight steamers. "These," says Mr. Millar, "were all of wood, the decks being spread out on each side of the hull, and the paddle-boxes well forward, leaving a short forecastle and long after-end. As a type of these early Clyde steamers, we have still amongst us the Industry, now lying in Bowling Harbour." From this point onwards the history of steam shipbuilding is the history of gradual progress and improverent, till in 1821 iron was used for their construction, the Aaron Manby having in that year been built in Horsley and completed in London. But it was not till 1856 that iron really began to assert its supremacy over wood for shipbuilding, and that the screw to any great extent replaced the paddle. In 1857 the Great Eastern was launched, both paddle and screw propellers being provided, but not with good results, the expense for fuel being very great, and the power gained by no means commensurate therewith. The low-pressure engines adopted were no doubt at fault for these results, whereas had the principle of the compound engine been employed by Brunel, success instead of failure might have been achieved. This compound principle had been in use by Randolph, Elder and Co., of Glasgow, since 1854, in marine engines, when the Brandon was supplied with machinery of this description. The steam pressure, which in this instance was limited to 42 lbs., has since by degrees been increased with perfect success to 100 lbs. In alliance with the surface condenser, and the circular multitubular boiler, the compound engine became a power sufficient to revolutionise all preconceived notions. Not till 1869 did these improvements come into general use, although the Pacific Steam Navigation Company adopted them as early as 1856. The most recent innovation or improvement in shipbuilding is the introduction of steel instead of iron both for hulls and boilers. What development this new invention has yet to undergo remains to be seen, largely depending, probably, on the question of expense, as also on the ability to produce the steel good in quality and of sufficient strength and durability. At the same time that these various improvements have been taking place in the construction of steamers' hulls, in materials, and in the principles of engines and boilers, the speed gained, and the increased power, are very marked. The fast steamers of the Cunard Company in 1840 only attained a speed of eight and a half knots an hour; this was increased afterwards to twelve knots, but now fifteen to sixteen knots is the average speed of some of the same company's steamers, while for smooth water upwards of twenty knots are got out of some of the passenger steamers, two notably, the Iona and Columbia, running between the places of summer resort on the Clyde. Several experiments in the form of vessels' hulls have been made at different times-twin vessels, cigarshaped vessels, and circular or oval ships-but it seems likely that the old form will for a long period be preferred. Most noteworthy among these experimental forms are the Popoffka, and the yacht Livadia, built for the late Czar of Russia, and the twin steamers Castalia and Calais-Douvres, for the Channel service. The models of the Popoffka and Livadia, in the Glasgow Exhibition, attract large numbers of the curious; the latter is a beautiful example of the modeller's skill, and must have cost a large sum to make, the minutest parts being reproduced in diminutive but perfect style. This model is placed in close proximity with one of the first passenger steamers, namely, the Comet, that ever plied in Europe, and the contrast between the two is very striking, and is easily made. The length of the Comet was 42 ft., her breadth 11 ft., and depth 5 ft. 6 in. She had at first two sets of paddle-wheels on each side, and her greatest speed of five miles an hour was obtained by a condensing steam-engine of 4-horse power. The Livadia is 266 ft. long, 153 ft. in breadth, and her depth from the awning deck 36 ft., her tonnage 11,802, the indicated horse power 10,500, and her speed over fifteen miles an hour. Another comparison may be made between the Sirius, the first paddle-steamer to cross the Atlantic in 1837-8, and the magnificent passenger steamers of the several great modern "lines." The exhibition further gives examples of vessels constructed for special purposes, such as the Cleopatra, for conveying Cleopatra's Needle from Egypt, and some towering floating palaces, such as those accustomed to American inland navigation are well acquainted with; it also contains models of the various inventions and improvements in yachts, lifeboats, engines, boilers, machinery, anchors, hawsers, and cables. The new system of water ballast and the pulsometer pump, for emptying the various tanks, are likewise shown. There are also many models of lighthouses themselves, and several revolving and other apparatus for use in lighthouses, models of harbours, docks, quay-walls, and cranes; besides a variety of other objects of more or less technical interest, including all the fittings and appliances used in shipbuilding or on board ship, such as binnacles, compasses, barometers, and chronometers, of which it is not now our intention to speak, though a description of some of them may occupy a page in a future number of this Magazine. L. S. 66 Ship ahoy! ship ahoy! What cheer? what cheer ?” Then sails are back'd, we nearer come, Kind words are said of friends and home; And soon, too soon, we part with pain, MOORE. |