nemus quod navali stagno circumposuit Augustus," Ann. xiv. 15). There are several passages which show that the lake existed long after the time of Augustus. Thus Statius (Silv. iv. 4. 5):"Continuo dextras flavi pete Tybridis oras, Lydia qua penitus stagnum navale coercet Ripa, suburbanisque vadum praetexitur hortis."

This passage likewise confirms the situation of the lake on the right, or Etruscan, bank (Lydia ripa) with the Nemus round it (cf. Suet. Tib. 72). It was used by Titus to exhibit a naumachia (Suet. Tit. 7; Dion Cass. l. c.); and remains of it were visible even in the time of Alexander Severus (Id. lv. 10). Although the passage in the Monumentum Ancyranum in which Augustus mentions this lake or basin is rather mutilated, we may make out that it was 1800 feet long by 1200 broad.

The Notitia mentions five NAUMACHIAE in the 14th Region, but the number is probably corrupt, and we should read two. (Preller, Regionen, p. 206.) We know at all events that Domitian also made a basin for ship-fights in the Transtiberine district. (Suet. Dom. 4.) The stone of which it was constructed was subsequently employed to repair the Circus Maximus (b. 5). That it was in a new situation appears from Dion Cassius (v Kau Tivi xwpiq, lxvii. 8). It probably lay under the Vatican, since St. Peter's was designated in the middle ages as "apud Naumachiam." (Flav. Blond. Instaur. R. i. 24: Anastas. V. Leo. III. p. 306, Blanch.; Montf. Diar. Ital. p. 291.) The naumachia ascribed to the em. peror Philip (Aur. Vict. Caes. 28) was perhaps only a restoration of this, or of that of Augustus.

Among other objects in the district of the Janiculum, we need only mention the HORTI GETAE and the CASTRA LECTICARIORUM. The former were probably founded by Septimius Severus, and inherited by his son Geta. We know at all events that

Severus founded some baths in this district (Spart. Sept. Sev. 19; cf. Becker, de Muris, p. 127) and the arch called PORTA SEPTIMIANA; and it likewise appears that he purchased some large gardens before his departure into Germany. (Spart. Ib. c. 4.) The Lecticarii were either sedan-chairmen, or men employed to carry biers, and their castra means nothing more than a station for them, just as we hear of the Castra Tabellariorum, Victimariorum, &c. (Preller, Regionen, p. 218.)

The MCNS or COLLIS VATICANUS rises a little to the NW. of the Mons Janiculus, from which it is separated only by a narrow valley, now Valle d laferno. The origin of the name of this district, at present the most famous in Rome, cannot be determined. The most common derivation of it is from a story that the Romans gained possession of it from the Etruscans through an oracular response ("Vatum responso expulsis Etruscis," Paul. Diac. p. 379.) We have already remarked that there is no ground for Niebuhr's assumption respecting the existence here of an Etruscan city called Vatica or Vaticum [see p. 724]. This district belonged still less than the Janiculum to the city, and was not even included in the walls of Aurelian. It was noted for its unhealthy air (Tac. H. ii. 93), its unfruitful soil (Cic. de Leg. Agr. ii. 35), and its execrable wine. ("Vaticana bibis, bibis venenum," Mart. vi. 92. 93; cf. x. 45.) In the Republican times the story so beautifully told by Livy (iii. 26) of the great dictator L. Quinctius Cincinnatus who was saluted dictator here whilst cultivating his farm of four acres, the PRATA QUINCTIA, lends the only interest to the scene, whether it may belong to the romance of history or not. There were no buildings in this quarter before the time of the emperors, and almost the only one of any note in all antiquity was a sepulchre-the MAUSOLEUM or MOLES HADRIANI, now the Castello di S. Angelo. (Dion Cass. Ixix. 23;

These gardens of the Domitian family are frequently mentioned in inscriptions; and those who are curious respecting their history will find a long account of them in Preller's Regionen (p. 207, seq.). They appear to have existed under the same name in the time of Aurelian. (Vopisc. Aurel. 49.) In the same district were also the HORTI AGRIPPINAE. These came into the possession of her son, Caligula, who built a circus in them, afterwards called the Circus Neronis. It will be treated of in another section; and we shall only mention here that this was the place in which the Christians, having previously been wrapped in the tunica molesta or picata, were burnt, to serve as torches for the midnight games. (Tac. Ann. xv. 44.) Both the gardens mentioned came into the possession of Nero, and may therefore have also been called HORTI NERONIS. (Tac. Ib. and c. 39.)

The neighbourhood seems to have been a chosen spot for the sepulchres of the great. One of them, a pyramid larger than the still existing monument of Cestius, existed till the end of the 15th century, and was absurdly regarded sometimes as the sepulcrum Romuli, sometimes as the sepulcrum Scipionis Africani. It appears from notices belonging to the middle ages that on or near the spot where St. Peter's now stands, there was anciently a TEMPLUM APOLLINIS, or more probably of Sol. (Anastasius, Vit. Silvestri, p. 42; Montf. Diar. i. p. 155.)

Having thus gone over the various districts of the city, and noted the principal objects of interest which they contained, we shall now proceed to give an account of certain objects which, from their importance, their general similarity, and the smallness of their number, may be most conveniently ranged together and treated of in distinct sections. Such are, - (1) the structures destined for public games and spectacles, as the Circi, Theatres, and Amphitheatres; (2) the Thermae or Baths; (3) the Bridges; and, (4) the Aqueducts.

The general characteristics of these objects have been so fully described in the Dictionary of Antiquities that it will be unnecessary to repeat the descriptions here, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to what may be called their topographical history; that is, an account of their origin and progress, their situation, size, and other similar particulars.

XV. THE CIRCI, THEATRES, AND AMPHI

THEATRES.

Horse and chariot races were the earliest kind of spectacle known at Rome. The principal circus in which these sports were exhibited, and which by way of pre-eminence over the others came ultimately to be distinguished by the title of CIRCUS MAXIMUS, was founded, as we have already related, by the elder Tarquin, in the vailey between the Palatine and Aventine. That king, however, probably did little more than level and mark out the ground; for certain spaces around it were assigned to the patricians and knights, and to the 30 curiae, on which, at the time of the games, they erected their own seats or scaffolds, called spectacula and fori. (Liv. i. 35; cf. Dionys. iii. 68.) According to Livy, the same custom continued to prevail under Tarquinius Superbus (lb. c. 56); though Dionysius represents that monarch as surrounding the circus with por

ticoes (iv. 44). It was not till the year B. C. 228 that carceres for the chariots were built. (Liv. viii. 20.) We cannot tell what the original number of carceres may have been, but it was probably adapted to that of the chariots which started in the race. According to Tertullian (de Spect. 9) there were originally only two Circensian factions, or colours, the albata and russata—that is, winter and summer; but these distinctions of colours and factions do not seem to have been known till the time of the Empire. Joannes Lydus (de Mens. iv. 25, Beck.) states the original number of the factions to have been three, the russata, albata and prasina; and this seems to agree with the following passage in Cicero―if, indeed, it is to be interpreted strictly, and is anything more than a fortuitous coincidence: "Neque enim in quadrigis eum secundum numeraverim, aut tertium, qui vix e carceribus exierit, cum palmam jam primus acceperit." (Brut. 47.) However this may be, we know that in the early part of the Empire there were four colours, though by whom the fourth, or veneta, was added, cannot be said. Domitian added two more the aurata and purpurata (Suet. Dom. 7), but these do not seem to have come into customary use. The usual missus, or start,, consisted of four chariots, as we learn from Virgil with the note of Servius:"Centum quadrijugos agitabo ad flumina currus (Georg. iii. 18);

where the commentator remarks from Varro:-" Id est, unius diei exhibebo circenses ludos, quia, ut Varro dicit in libris de gente populi Romani, olim XXV. missus fiebant." It appears probable that the carceres were twice the number of the chariots which started, in order to afford egress to those which had finished the course, whilst fresh charioteers were waiting in those which were closed to begin a new course (v. Becker, de Muris, p. 87). Thus in the Lyons mosaic eight carceres are represented; but in the Circus Maximus, after the increase of the factions to six, there were probably twelve carceres; and such also appears to have been the number in the circus on the Via Appia. (Cf. Cassiod. Var. iii. 51.) The Circus Maximus seems to have remained in a very rude and imperfect state till the time of Julius Caesar. He increased it by adding to both its extremities; and its size when thus enlarged appears to have been 3 stadia in length and 1 in breadth. Caesar also surrounded it with a canal, called EURIPUS, in order to protect the spectators from the fury of the elephants; but this was filled up by Nero and converted into seats for the equites, whose increased numbers probably required more accommodation. (Suet. Caes. 39; Plin. viii. 7, xxxvi. 24. s. 1.) The description of the circus by Dionysius (iii. 68) is the clearest and longest we possess, but the measurements which he gives differ from those of Pliny, as he makes it 31⁄2 stadia long and 4 plethra, or 3ds of a stade, broad. But perhaps these authorities may be reconciled by assuming that one took the inner and the other the outer circumference. The reader will find a lengthened examination of these different measures in Canina's Indicazione Topografica, p. 491, seq. In Caesar's circus it was only the lower rows of seats that were built of stone; the upper rows were of wood, which accounts for the repeated fires that happened there. The first of these occurred in B. c. 31, a little before the battle of Actium, and destroyed a considerable

viously to this period, plays were performed in wooden theatres, erected for the occasion. Some of these temporary buildings were constructed with extravagant magnificence, especially that of M. Aemilius Scaurus in B. C. 59, a description of which is given by Pliny (xxxvi. 24. s. 7). An attempt, to which we have before alluded, was indeed made by the censor Cassius, B. c. 154, to erect a stone theatre near the Lupercal, which was defeated by the rigid morality of Scipio Nasica (Vell. Pat. i. 15; Val. Max. ii. 4. § 2; Liv. Epit. xlviii.; Oros. iv. 21). A good deal of this old Roman feeling remained in the time of Pompey; and in order to overcome, or rather to evade it, he dedicated a temple to VENUS VICTRIX on the summit of his theatre, to which the rows of seats appeared to form an ascent (Tac. Ann. xiv. 20; Tert. de Spect. 10; Plin. viii. 7). Gellius places the dedication of the theatre in the third consulship of Pompey, which is at variance with the other authorities (N. A. x. 1). We have spoken of its situation in a preceding section, and shall refer the reader who desires any further information on this head to Canina (Indicaz. p. 368, seq.), who has bestowed much labour in investigating the remains of this building. There is great discrepancy in the accounts of the number of spectators which this theatre was capable of accommodating. According to Pliny, in whose MSS. there are no variations, it held 40,000 persons (xxxvi. 24. s. 7); and the account of Tacitus of the visit of the German ambassadors seems to indicate a large number ("Intravere Pompeii theatrum, quo magnitudinem populi viserent," Ann. xiii. 54). Yet one of the codices of the Notitia assigns to it only 22,888 seats, and the Curiosum still fewer, or 17,580. It was called theatrum lapideum, or marmoreum, from the material of which it was built; which, however, did not suffice to protect it from the ravages of fire. The scena was destroyed in the reign of Tiberius, and rededicated by Claudius (Tac. Ann. iii. 72; Dion Cass. Ix. 6). The theatre was burnt in the fire under Titus, and again in the reign of Philip; but it must have been restored on both occasions, as it is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus among the objects most worthy of notice in his account of the visit of Constantius II. (xvi. 10). We learn from the Catalogus Imperatorum, that it had been repaired by Diocletian and Maximian; and it was also the object of the care of Theodoric (Cassiod. Var. iv. 51).

The THEATRE OF BALBUS, dedicated in B. C. 12 (Suet. Aug. 29; Dion Cass. liv. 25), was a building of much less importance, and but few accounts have been preserved of it; yet it must have lasted till a late period, as it is recorded in the Notitia. According to the Curiosum it accommodated 11,600 persons; whilst the MSS. of the Notitia mention 11,510 and 8088.

The THEATRUM MARCELLI was begun by Caesar (Dion Cass. xliii. 49), and dedicated by Augustus, B. C. 12, to the memory of his nephew, Marcellus. (Mon. Ancyr.; Suet. Aug. 29; Dion Cass. liv. 26.) We have already mentioned its situation in the Forum Olitorium; and very considerable remains of it are still to be seen in the Piazza Montanara. Its arches are now occupied by dirty workshops. It does not seem to have enjoyed so much celebrity as Pompey's theatre. According to the Curiosum it was capable of accommodating 20,000 spectators. The scena was restored by Vespasian (Suet. Vesp.

THEATRE OF MARCELLUS.

These were the three Roman theatres, properly so called (Ov. Tr. iii. 12. 24.):—

"Proque tribus resonant terna theatra foris." Some of the MSS. of the Notitia mention four theatres, including, of course, the ODEUM, which was a roofed theatre, intended for musical performances. According to the most trustworthy accounts, it was built by Domitian, to be used in the musical contests of the Capitoline games which he instituted (Suet. Dom. 4; Cassiod. Chron. p. 197, Ronc.); and when Dion Cassius (lxix. 4) ascribes it to Trajan, we may perhaps assume that it was finished or perfected by him. Nero appears to have first introduced musical contests (Tac. Ann. xiv. 20), but the theatre in which they were held was probably a temporary one. The Odeum was capable of holding 10,000 or 12,000 persons. It is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus (xvi. 10).

The AMPHITHEATRE OF STATILIUS TAURUS was the first permanent building of that kind erected at Rome. After the chariot races, the gladiatorial combats were the most favourite spectacle of the Romans; yet it was long before any peculiar building was appropriated to them. We have already related that the first gladiators were exhibited in the Forum Boarium in B. c. 264; and subsequently these combats took place either in the circus or in the Forum Romanum: yet neither of these places was well

inconvenient, from its great length, and the metae | and spinae were in the way; whilst the latter, besides its moral unsuitableness for such a spectacle, became by degrees so crowded with monuments as to leave but little space for the evolutions of the combatants. The first temporary amphitheatre was the wonderful one built of wood by Caesar's partisan, C. Scribonius Curio. It consisted of two separate theatres, which, after dramatic entertainments had been given in them, were turned round, with their audiences, by means of hinges or pivots, and formed an amphitheatre (Plin. xxxvi. 24. s. 8). Caesar himself afterwards erected a wooden amphi

theatre (Dion Cass. xliii. 22); but that of Statilius Taurus was the first built of stone, and continued to be the only one down to the time of Vespasian. We have mentioned that it was in the Campus Martius. It was dedicated in the fourth consulship of Augustus, B. c. 30. (Dion Cass. li. 23; Suet. Aug. 29.) The amphitheatre erected by Nero in the Campus Martius was a temporary one of wood. (Suet. Nero, 12.) The amphitheatre of Taurus, which does not appear to have been very magnificent (Dion Cass. lix. 10), was probably destroyed in the fire of Nero; at all events we hear no more of it after that event. The AMPHITHEATRUM FLAVIUM,

sons. (Notitia, Reg. iii.) A complete description of this magnificent building will be found in the Dictionary of Antiquities, and need not be re

peated here. It was not completely finished till the reign of Domitian; though Titus dedicated it in the year 80. (Suet. Tit. 7; Aur. Vict. Cues. 9. 7.) In the reign of Macrinus it was so much damaged by a fire, occasioned by lightning, that it was necessary to exhibit the gladiatores and venatones for several years in the Stadium. (Dion Cass. lxxviii. 25.) The restoration was undertaken by

Elagabalus, and completed by Alexander Severus. (Lampr. Hel. 17, Alex. 24.) It suffered a similar calamity under Decius (Hieron. Chron. p. 475); but the damage was again made good, and rena tiones, or combats with wild beasts, were exhibited in it as late as the 6th century. In the middle ages it was converted into a fortress; and at a later period a great part of it was destroyed by the