it does exist, to the "suspensory lobe." Without, however, positively pronouncing upon its homology, convenience of description induces us to name it "left suspensory lobule."

It is proposed, then, to speak of the liver as divisible into three principal lobes, two of which frequently admit of further subdivision-at the most, however, into not more than three lobules each.

On the Influence of the Season of the Year on the Human System.
By EDWARD SMITH, M.D., F.R.S.

The author said that he only proposed to give a brief outline of a series of observations he had made upon himself, and to mention one or two deductions he had drawn from these observations. The observations he had made were to show the variations of the vital actions in the human system, and his two principal inquiries referred-the one to the respiratory functions, and the other to the elimination of nitrogen. In reference to respiration, the amount of carbonic acid evolved varied from day to day with the cycle of the seasons. He had found that there was a definite variation in the amount of vital action proceeding within the body at the different periods of the year, and that this followed a well-marked course. Thus, at the beginning of June a fall commenced, and this continued and progressively increased through June, July, and August, until the commencement of September, when the lowest point was attained. After this period, in October an upward tendency was manifested, and it continued through October, November, and December, until January, when a point was attained from which there was little change in January, February, and March. In April and May the amount of carbonic acid evolved was yet further increased, until the point was reached whence he started. The extreme amount of change observed was a loss of three grains of carbonic acid per hour from the commencement of June to September; and the extreme quantities recorded were in May 10-26 grains, and at the lowest period between 6 and 7 grains. The rate of respiration, the quantity of air inspired, and the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled, followed the rule he had explained. It had been proved by several series of experiments that the rate of pulsation was increased by heat, whilst the rapidity of pulsation was the reverse of the rate of respi-. ration. With reference to the evolution of nitrogen, the conditions were the opposite of those of the elimination of carbonic acid. The general results he had arrived at were, that there was a greater amount of fluid evolved in the summer months than in the winter. The carbonic acid evolved decreased with the increase of temperature. On a sudden increase of temperature there was a large decrease of vital action, and on a fall of temperature there was an increase of vital action. The greatest growth of animals would occur at that period of the year when there was the largest amount of vital action; and in this respect they were connected with the vegetable kingdom. He believed that it was a fact with regard to the growth of children, that they grew at a greater rate in spring than in winter. From facilities which the Registrar-General had afforded him, he had ascertained that a much larger number of those children born at the latter part of the summer died within a year of birth than took place amongst those born at other periods of the year. The children born in the winter and spring periods were less subject to disease, and in all probability had stronger constitutions than those born in the summer season. These variations in the increase and decrease of the vital power of the system seemed to him to be the origin and the cure of diseases, especially those that were chronic. All epidemics to a large extent, in whatever part of the world they occurred, took place at the period when the human system was decreasing in vital action. This rule applied to cholera especially, which generally attained its

greatest height in July and August, in October diminished, and in November disappeared.

On the Action of the Eustachian Tube in Man, as demonstrated by Dr. Politzer's Otoscope. By J. TOYNBEE, F.R.S.

From the time that the celebrated anatomist, Eustachius, in the 16th century, discovered the tube leading from the cavity of the fauces to that of the tympanum, this Eustachian tube has been usually described as constantly open, and the air in the two cavities has consequently been looked upon as constantly continuous Although Mr. Wharton Jones in 1841, and M. Hyrtl in 1845, spoke of the fancial orifice of the Eustachian tube as having "the property of a weak valve opening either way," their opinion did not alter the views entertained by physiologists respecting the functions of the Eustachian tube, and its constantly open condition was considered essential to the due performance of the function of hearing.

In the year 1853 I laid before the Royal Society a paper, the object of which was to demonstrate, firstly, that the faucial orifice of the Eustachian tube is always closed, except momentarily during the act of deglutition or when air is forcibly blown through it; secondly, that the Eustachian tube is opened by the muscles of the palate, the tensor and levator palati; thirdly, that, contrary to the preconceived opinion of physiologists that "if the Eustachian tube is closed the hearing is lost at once," in order that the function of hearing may be duly performed, it is absolutely requisite for the Eustachian tube to be closed, otherwise the sonorous undulations, which ought to be confined to the tympanic cavity in order that they may be concentrated upon the membrana fenestræ rotundæ, are lost in the fauces, and the sounds from the fauces also enter the tympanum and produce the most distressing discord.

In proof that the faucial orifice of the Eustachian tube remains closed after the act of swallowing, the experimenter has but to swallow some saliva while the nostrils are closed by the finger and thumb: a sensation of pressure is produced in each ear, which disappears only when the act of swallowing is again performed without the pressure of the nose. It is also well known that unless the act of deglutition be frequently practised during the descent in a diving-bell, so that the Eustachian tube may be opened and air allowed to enter the tympanum, great deafness and a feeling of pressure in the ears are produced. Further, in cases where the membrana tympani is lax, it is seen to move outwards when air is blown into the tympanic cavity, and it returns to its natural position only on the act of swallowing being performed.

In order to demonstrate this function of the Eustachian tube, and also to diagnose its condition in disease, I suggested the use of an otoscope, consisting of an elastic tube about eighteen inches long and a quarter of an inch in diameter, each end being tipped with an ebony tube. Upon the introduction of one end of this tube into the ear of the experimenter, while the other is placed in that of the person experimented upon, if the latter distends the tympanum by a forcible attempt at an expiration while the nose and mouth are closed, the air is heard to enter and to distend the tympanum, and the cavity remains distended until the act of swallowing is performed, when the drum is heard to recede as the air makes its egress.

The views on the physiology of the Eustachian tube advanced by me before the Royal Society having attracted the attention of Dr. Politzer of Vienna, that gentleman performed a series of experiments with the object of testing their accuracy. The result is that Dr. Politzer came to the same conclusion as I had done, and he invented a simple and ingenious instrument, by means of which the action of the Eustachian tube can be seen. This instrument, which I have called Dr. Politzer's otoscope, consists of a rounded portion of cork or india rubber, about an inch and a half long, and about half an inch in diameter; in the centre of this is a glass tube about two lines in diameter, which externally is disposed in the form of an elbow. When used, the rounded and free portion of the cork or india rubber is moistened, and introduced into the external meatus, care being taken that it fits, so as to prevent the outer air from passing between the instrument and the walls of the meatus. When this has been accomplished, a drop of water is allowed to enter the tube so as to fill half the elbow, and to be on the same plane in each portion of it. The

person experimented upon is now to close the nose with his finger and thumb, and (the mouth being shut) to force air into the tympanum. Immediately this takes place, the water is seen to descend in the inner portion of the elbow and to ascend in the outer portion. The finger and thumb are now to be removed from the nose, when no movement of the water is observed to take place in either elbow; but as soon as the act of swallowing is performed, the water is observed to return to its original position, the drum having receded on the opening of the Eustachian tube.

On the Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Sulphate of Aniline, and its Use in the Treatment of Chorea. By Dr. J. TURNBULL, Liverpool. The author observed that medical men had not acquired a knowledge of new remedies commensurate with the improvements which had been made in other branches of medical science. The progress of organic chemistry had brought to light many new bodies worthy of investigation, and there could be little doubt that many of them would, if their properties were examined, be found to prove remedies of utility. The artificial alkaloids were a numerous class, and from their resemblance in chemical constitution to the vegetable alkaloids, it might reasonably be expected that some of them should have powerful and useful properties. He had been led to make trial of the sulphate of the artificial alkaloid, aniline, in cases of nervous disorder, and had treated with it successfully six cases of chorea, or St. Vitus's dance. In regard to its physiological action, he stated that aniline appeared to act directly on the nervous system as a sedative. The most remarkable effect, however, which it produced was a transient alteration in the colour of the skin and lips, which became of a bluish hue; and this he attributed to oxidation of the aniline and the formation of a colouring-matter in the blood. As a therapeutic agent, he expressed the opinion that it would be found by the profession to be a valuable new remedy.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

On the Connexion between Ethnology and Physical Geography.
By JOHN CRAWFURD, F.R.S., President of the Section.

Ir has been the practice of my predecessors to open the meetings of this Section by a short address, and I gladly follow their example, choosing for my subject one which I hope you will consider suited to the occasion-the connexion between ethnology and physical geography. Man will be found savage, barbarous, or civilized, in proportion to the quality of the race to which he belongs, and to the physical character of the country in which his lot has been cast. Beginning with the conditions least favourable to his progress, and rising to those which are most auspicious, I proceed at once to illustrate this principle by a few examples: such a step may perhaps be useful in showing the scope of our science--the knowledge of the earth considered as the habitation of man. Mere intemperance of climate, independent of any other obstacle, is sufficient to prevent man from making any advance towards civilization, and to hold him permanently in the savage state. The condition of the inhabitants of the Arctic, sub-Arctic, Antarctic, and sub-Antarctic regions are examples. The Esquimaux is the most striking: dwelling where the year consists but of one day and one night, where snow and glaciers are substituted for the green earth, where no plant yielding food for man will grow, and, save the dog, no domestic animal live, advancement is impossible. The Esquimaux alone can live in such a region, and this only as hunters and fishermen, leading a nomadic life over its vast surface. Under such adverse circumstances, we only wonder at the progress they have made in the arts, with stones, bones, sinews, skins, and drift-wood their sole appliances.

There are lands, indeed, which, from mere inclemency, seem incapable of supporting human life at all, and which seem never to have been inhabited. The islands of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla within the Arctic, and New Shetland within the Antarctic Circle, are examples. Even more temperate Iceland had no abori1861.

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ginal inhabitants, and was unpeopled until colonized about 1000 years ago, and this by one of the most highly-gifted races of man-the same which twice conquered France and England.

I take my next illustration from a country of a very different character, Australia. The great mass of this continent lies in a temperate region, with well-marked seasons, and the rest in a tropical one. The climate of that portion of it which has been tested is one of the finest in the world, and the land is not encumbered with forest, always so formidable an obstacle to the early advancement of civilization With these exceptions it possesses no peculiar advantages: it has no great range of high mountains, and hence no great navigable rivers, while, from the same cause, a vast extent of its surface is an arid desert of sand. Compared to its area, it has but a small extent of coast-line, because little indented by gulfs, bays, or inlets, and hence it is wanting in facility of intercommunication. It contained no native plant available to cultivation for human food, and no native animal amenable to domestication, the dog excepted, of small value in such a climate. Under such discouragements, and without communication with strangers, any advancement in civilization would have been impossible, even had its native inhabitants been of the most highly-gifted races of man. Mentally and physically they are, on the contrary, among the feeblest, consisting of hordes of black, ill-formed, unseemly naked savages, possessed of no arts, except those which enabled them to maintain a bare existence from the spontaneous productions of the earth or the water.

Equal in extent to China, the whole population of Australia did not, probably, exceed in number that of a single town in that empire. Little more than seventy years ago this distant and unpromising land was selected as a place of punishment for English felons; in due time it was found excellently well adapted for the sheep, although no native animal of the family it belongs to existed in it, and chiefly by its help the population of the strangers rose to half a million. Ten years ago it was found to be rich in gold, a fact which the natives had not discovered; and if they had, the precious metal would have been of no more value to them than the quartz rock which contains it. The gold has doubled the civilized population, and, with the wool of the sheep, is exported, to the enrichment of the colonists and the world at large, to the yearly value of fifteen millions. At even less than its recent rate of increase, Australia will, in a century's time, contain a population equal to that of the United Kingdom, a wealthy, proud, and formidable nation of AngloSaxons mighty conquerors and troublesome neighbours.

The tropical Andaman Islands, in the Gulf of Bengal, are an example of a land even more inauspicious than Australia itself. With the exception of external form and of climate, not, however, specially favourable, every other condition indispensable to human progress seems here wanting. It produces no plants fit for human food, and not one animal amenable to domestication-except, perhaps, the hog; indeed, with the exception of these and of apes and reptiles, hardly any large animals at all. The aborigines are a small, feeble race of black negroes, in physical form much below even the unpromising Australians. In the same Southern Hemisphere with Australia lies a land of less extent, but of far higher attributes than Australia, New Zealand. The two islands which mainly compose it lie within the similar latitudes with Italy, Greece, and the Archipelago. The soil is fertile, and high mountains secure a perennial supply of water. With these natural advantages, however, they possessed when discovered no native plant amenable to cultivation, or animal capable of domestication; for the yam, the batata, and the taro were imported exotics; and the dog-for want of suitable food, small and fewalso an imported stranger. The inhabitants themselves were emigrants from the intertropical isles of the Pacific, as attested by the identity of their physical form and language with those of these islands. For lack of animal food-for they had destroyed the gigantic struthious birds of their country before they were known to Europeans-the New Zealanders betook themselves to eating one another, and were the most open and avowed cannibals on record. They would have been even more abject savages than they were, had they not brought with them the above-named cultivated plants. Notwithstanding this, our experience of the New Zealanders has shown them to possess more courage and capacity than Europeans have ever found in any other wild race. In these qualities they are a contrast to the feeble and effeminate people of the tropics from whom they sprang-a difference of cha

racter which can hardly have arisen from any other cause than that of a comparatively rigorous climate, necessitating exertion.

The vast continent of America, temperate, tropical, and equatorial, naturally possesses many of the essential properties requisite for the promotion of a high civilization-deeply indented coasts, high mountain-chains, and the greatest rivers of the world, with lakes equivalent to inland seas. It was for the most part covered with deep forests, unconquerable by the feeble efforts of savages, clear mountain plateaux and prairies being the exceptions. Instead of the many cereals of the Old World, it had but a single corn. It had no domestic beast of draught, and virtually but a single beast of burden, of about one-sixth part of the power of the camel, and even this one confined to a mountain region, for which alone it was fit. But the greatest defect of America consisted in the race of man-below the negro of Africa in physical strength, and below the Malay in intelligence. The same race, with inconsiderable varieties, pervaded the whole continent from Terra del Fuego to the confines of the Esquimaux. The highest civilization reached by the American race was that which existed on the high plateau of the Andes but even that was far below the degree which had been attained by second- and third-rate nations of Asia-the sufficient proof of which is, that the Mexicans and Peruvians had not invented letters, nor discovered the art of making iron malleable, as had all of these. In that portion of America extending from the great chain of lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, where about two centuries and a half ago savage hunters alone wandered, there now exists, planted within that comparatively brief period, an Anglo-Saxon population as numerous as that of the country which colonized it, and of the same rank of civilization, a fact which attests beyond all question the natural capacity of this region for developing the highest powers of man. This great and prosperous people imitates the country from whence it sprang in all things, virtues, vices, and follies. In obedience to this example it is at the present moment shedding its blood and wasting its wealth to no rational purpose.

The huge mass of land which we call Africa, extending over seventy degrees of latitude, although almost an island, has a coast less indented than any other of the great quarters of the globe. It has no high chain of mountains comparable to those of Europe, Asia, and America, and hence no great navigable rivers like theirs. It wants also their inland seas and great lakes. Much of its area consists of wild sandy deserts, and much of primeval and perennial tropical forest, more difficult of transit than the sandy desert itself. These natural obstacles are hindrances to intercommunication, and therefore to social progress. The races of man which inhabit Africa correspond with the disadvantages of its physical geography. Taking the capacity to invent written letters, to construct durable architectural monuments, and to form powerful states as tests of capacity for civilization, Africa may be briefly sketched. To the north of the chain of the Atlas and bordered by the Mediterranean, we have a narrow slip of land in climate and production far more European than African. The aboriginal people of this region, the Numidians and Mauritanians, the ancestors of the present Kabyles and Berbers, were in physical form and mental endowment more European, or perhaps Asiatic, than African. The countrymen of Jugurtha had invented letters, built durable monuments, and acquired such military skill and power as to enable them to defeat Roman armies. Their territorial limits, however, were too narrow, and their political skill too small, to enable them to construct an empire, and for 2000 years they have been subjugated by a succession of invaders. Egypt, like Barbary, has the advantage of a temperate climate, and of the peculiar and perennial fertility conferred by the Nile, without which its narrow valley would, like the country on both sides of it, be a mere desert of sand. The race which inhabited it was less European or African than Asiatic, and in capacity bore a considerable resemblance to Chinese. In so favoured a locality, and with such a people, an early social advancement was inevitable; but the Egyptian civilization was not a vigorous or an enterprising one. The Egyptians were a home-keeping people, who never left their own country, and who, unable to defend it, have been subdued by a succession of invaders for now thirty ages. Had the Jews, a people far more highly endowed, been sufficiently numerous and powerful, which their poor and limited territory forbade, I am of opinion that instead of the bondsmen they would have been the masters of the Egyptians. After referring to the Nubian and Abyssinian races, he continued :