"crofters," of whom we have spoken, bore the appearance of remarkably strong men; their working dress was of thick white flannel, called "gladding;" the cut of the coat was peculiar, having a loose, open appearance, and a low, flat collar, on which the shirt-collar usually rested. They had their necks uncovered; and, their employment being so much exposed to moisture, they seldom wore stockings. Altogether, they assumed a bearing of unconcern about the state of the weather, and were quite regardless of the splashing of water. Their employment consisted mainly in the handling of wet cloth, and in removing it, either by hand or by wheelbarrows, from one operation to another. Perhaps the most distressing part of their labour was that of carrying upon their shoulders a pile of wet cloth, rising to some height above the head, which they conveyed to some considerable distance in the fields, and spread upon the grass. In the severity of the winter season there would be drippings from the cloth, forming icicles, which would be adhering to the skirts of their clothing. It has been through a succession of mechanical inventions that these laborious operations have been dispensed with, and one after another they have been handed over to the power of the steam-engine. The result has been that the time required for the operation of bleaching is now about as many days as formerly it required weeks to accomplish. Honour to British genius that these advantages have been derived to our country!

The general public will, no doubt, feel curious to ascertain whether any and what proportion of the money-saving thus effected has reached the consumer; some other portion of the public will inquire in what extent the advantages thus achieved by science and art have been shared by the operative class employed,-it is not expected that much concern will be manifested about the interests of the proprietor; and it is not unreasonable to suppose that a still more minute inquiry will be raised about the "human machine," more especially whether, during the progress of these advances in manufacturing art, the material, moral, and intellectual condition of the working class has been made to keep pace with all these improved manipulations, which, amidst the struggle of changes, have destroyed the character of many employments, but have greatly increased the whole number of persons employed? The advantages shared by the consumer will easily be reckoned. We have before us a printed card, or list of prices for bleaching, issued by a leading firm in the year 1803. At that time the charge for bleaching a well-known description of cloth was 7s. 6d. for a piece of 28 yards, and it is now 6d. The case of the labourers employed in bleaching 60 or 70 years ago was, as before stated, a very harassing one; they suffered severely from exposure to wet and cold, and, as a consequence, from rheumatism and asthma. The earnings of a "crofter" would be from 10s. to 158. per week. Upon wages so scanty, and with some uncertainty of employment, their mode of living was necessarily inexpensive. Oatmeal was the staple commodity of their food. They used it as porridge; their bread was of oatmeal, either in leavened oat-cakes or baked in the form of a loaf called jannock, which is said to have been introduced by the refugee Flemings; and animal food, with the exception of bacon, was seldom found at the working-man's table. Now-a-days, the workmen in bleach-works perform all their work indoors, and are therefore no longer exposed to the coldness and moisture of the former period. The wages are increased in a proportion which cannot easily be estimated, and their employment is one of great regularity. They have nearly ceased to consume oatmeal; jannock is unheard of; oat-cakes are seldom seen; and their tables are now daily spread with wheaten bread, animal food from the shambles, and all the other articles which usually enter into the consumption of families in the other grades of life.

The social condition of the operative bleacher of early times cannot easily be separated from the rest of the working population of that day, neither could they now be described in any other manner than that which would apply to the operatives around them in other pursuits. We may refer to their modes of pleasuretaking as affording in itself a very appreciable indication of the past and present. The amusements which formerly prevailed were rude and boisterous; now they are more refined and intellectual. Bull-baiting, bear-baiting, and cock-fighting were amongst the common amusements of the day, especially at the wakes and fairs. The game of foot-ball was a very favourite one, so much so that the people of one place would make selection of their combatants and have them pitched against those of some other place, and these would contend in very ardent strife for the renown

of mastery. Indeed, so very popular was this game, that a match at foot-ball waz upon one day in the year tolerated by the inhabitants in the streets of Bolton. The whole of this is now given up. The game of cricket is becoming a popular one, and others equally harmless in their character are being introduced. Seventy years ag Sunday-schools had made but slight progress. There were but few persons who could read, still fewer who could write; and when any one received a letter, he had to carry it away, perhaps a good many miles, to find a scholar who could read it. At the present time, Sunday-schools abound, day-schools are numerous, and the affair of carrying away a letter in search of a scholar may now with much compincency be put down as among the reminiscences of seventy years ago.

On the Influence of Density of Population on the Fecundity of Marriages in England. By R. H. BAKEWELL.

A Glance at the Cotton Trade. By THOMAS BAZLEY, M.P.

A century ago the population of Manchester was below 30,000, whilst now 350,000 persons reside in and occupy it. Population and wealth have wonderfully increased and ramified to other places; but now, in the zenith of prosperity, a mysterious hand has written upon our walls the words of caution and of admonition. During the last fifty years upwards of 20,000,000,000 pounds weight of cotton from all sources have been consumed in Great Britain, and the value would be probably not less than £750,000,000 sterling, or might equal a sum of the amount of our National Debt, the chief supply having been obtained from the United States of America. Upon a fair computation, the import of that material, which has so largely employed the capital and labour of this country, has yielded a profit of not less than £1,000,000,000 sterling to the people of the United Kingdom within that period. The wonder is, that so large a supply of cotton could be procured from that one source, the United States; and when we reflect that this country possesses a monopoly of the vast extent of territory found in the whole world capable of producing this raw material, the inference is most palpable, that there has been developed the most successful agricultural industry in the States of America which has been ever either contemplated or realized; whilst in British colonies and dependencies apathy and neglect have prevailed. If the legislature had little sympathy with the great industry of Lancashire, the interests of our foreign possessions might have induced our rulers to stimulate productions in them which would have found compensating markets at home. The advocates of large and of independent supplies of raw cotton, from all possible sources, have never desired Governmental favours, their object having been to promote the removal of repressing obstacles, and to procure, by the aid of a sound colonial policy, at least a fair share, in proportion to the extent of our foreign possessions, not only of cotton, but of every other product which they might more abundantly have yielded. During the last year the consumption of cotton in Great Britain was 85 per cent. from the United States, 8 per cent. from other foreign sources, and 7 per cent. from British territory. The present position of the trade is most precarious and dangerous. Existing stocks and prospective supplies of cotton may enable the mills to be worked into the spring of next year, at moderately full time; but afterwards, unless supplies be received from the United States, independent sources can only furnish the means of keeping the mills at work little more than one day in the week. With the growth of this industry 5,000,000 of our population have become, directly and indirectly, dependent upon it for their subsistence; and the productiveness of their capital and labour, including the raw material, was for the last year nearly eighty million pounds sterling. Of this large value twenty-five millions of cotton manufactures were absorbed in the consumption of the people of the United Kingdom, and there remained for exportation fifty-five millions. The estimated capital engaged in its fixed and floating investments is two hundred million pounds. Now, when we contemplate the vast interests involved in this surprising trade, seeing that the people employed and connected with it exceed the population of the kingdom of Belgium, of Holland, and of Portugal,-that the national treasury receives from it an amazing sum in aid of the expenses of the State,-that a commercial marine of unparalleled magnitude derives support from it,-that the comfort and happiness of the labourers employed

in it are imperilled by any indications which threaten to disturb its existence and prosperity, and that its suspension or serious curtailment would even endanger the general weal,-we may well inquire what efforts have been made to sustain the usefulness, prosperity, and permanency of this source of national riches. That the cotton trade should have rested chiefly upon the one supply of the States of America for its very means of existence, every good and every wise man has deplored; but that to produce that supply the portion of the human family which is most defenceless should be held in the degradation of slavery is abhorrent to the feelings of the righteous, of the humane, and of the benevolent. Most effectually to suppress slavery will be to supersede the necessity for the labour of the slave; and if the chiefs of Africa could be induced to cultivate sugar, cotton, and tobacco upon their own soil, they need not expel and degrade their labourers.

The author added remarks on the effects of the commercial policy of the United States, and affirmed that this country has been paying a tribute of five million pounds sterling per annum to those States in excess of the price at which cotton could be remuneratively produced and sold. With the convulsion which exists in America, with the adverse commercial policy dominant there, and with the inhuman system of slavery which prevails in the cotton-producing districts, what are the duties which devolve upon our governing and mercantile classes? If by the convulsion of the States we are taught our national as well as commercial duties, the lesson will be ultimately beneficial. Whether it has been wise for our Government to see continually increasing the dependence of this great trade upon the one chief supply of its raw material, and that source adverse in interest and oppressive to its own labour, we can only answer in the negative. With the East and West Indies, with tracts in South, East, and West Africa, and with land in Australia as extensive as Europe, capable of growing cotton from the lowest to the highest qualities, it is a national reproach to us that we have permitted our own fields to be uncultivated, and that our spinners and manufacturers have been driven by necessity to consume the produce of slavery. Lacking the means of communication and of irrigation, the resources of the East Indies remain in much the same dormant condition in which they have been for two thousand years; but brighter prospects are opening in that great dependency,-railways are being constructed, canals formed, river navigation improved, and works of irrigation promoted. One great defect, however, is retained with perverse tenacity. The tenure of land is obstructive alike to the rights of individual ownership and to its effective cultivation. Without doing the slightest wrong to the holders of any land, its equitable transfer might be sanctioned, and a landed proprietary as influential as in our own country might be established. Protection to life and the rights of property, with every other just adjunct of good government, will inevitably lead to prosperity. Small supplies of cotton, as good as that obtained from New Orleans, are now received from India, and the cotton of this vast dependency is certainly improving; but whilst, from a combination of circumstances and causes, the ryot of India is only paid 12s. per acre for his crop of cotton, and the American cultivator can obtain £12, the energy and capability of the former cannot be developed. Supposing efforts to be made commensurate with indicated difficulties, all the common cottons, or 75 per cent. of the consumption of Great Britain, might be obtained from India in a couple of years. From Egypt the supply of cotton may increase, but there the withering influence of the despot retards its extended cultivation, though the spirited, energetic, and successful enterprise of Mehemet Ali is an example deserving the imitation of better men. He introduced that agricultural industry into his viceroyalty, and founded a fountain of wealth whence flow millions of annual income to the advantage of Egypt. For all the finer, higher, and better classes of cotton, from New Orleans, Brazil, and Egyptian, to the most beautiful Sea Island, Queensland, in Australia, might quickly afford all requisite supplies. That territory alone, besides sustaining the population of Europe, could easily be made to produce all the cotton now consumed in the world; but so sweeping a change and enlarged production need not be deliberated upon, the facts being only referred to as illustrating the powers of that colony. In seeking from the Government the development of the resources of the colonies, the twofold advantage would arise by which that power would financially be greatly benefited, alike at home and in the colonies. Government must set its colonial house in order. Land grants for beneficial purposes

should be free, facilities afforded for emigration, public works promoted, and preperity will follow in the train. Capitalists, merchants, and manufacturers, whos investments are largely embarked in the cotton trade, have duties devolving up them. These bodies are known to have large investments in foreign railways, in the cultivation of sugar and other products, and in many dubious securities; but in the cultivation of the staple raw material of their own pursuits they have not ventured to embark. Last year the cotton trade contributed to capital and labour fify million pounds sterling, and in the last fifty years the aggregate reward has been e thousand millions. Surely from these treasures might be spared some pittance of capital to free the negro, and to ensure still greater prosperity to industry. Supposing the Government of our country to be willing to make all the preliminary arrange ments which will contribute to the security and profit of capital invested in cottongrowing, the clear duty of the class referred to will be to enter upon investments with no niggard hand; and, for their encouragement, it may be mentioned that very recently an extensive Louisiana cotton-planter has asserted that he could grow cotton at 3d. per lb. which is now worth 9d. per lb. in Liverpool, and of course he has had to buy his labourers, and afterwards to sustain them. The confessed is 200 per cent.; but, in all sobriety of judgment, cotton-growing would afford 100 per cent. of recompense. Here, then, the governing, the capitalist, the mercantile, and the manufacturing classes have duties in common to perform, and from which none of them should withhold their willing help. Upon this subject the warning voice has been long and often heard, and the present embarrassment in cotton sup plies has been anticipated. Having, therefore, been forewarned, may this great and world-benefiting industry be fore-armed!

On Ten Years' Statistics of the Mortality amongst the Orphan Children takea under the Care of the Dublin Protestant Orphan Societies. By the Rev. W. CAINE, M.A.

There are two of these societies in Dublin, one for the children of parents both of whom were Protestants, the other for the children of mixed marriages.

Their distinguishing peculiarity is, that the children taken under their care are not congregated together in one large building, but are placed with poor Protestant families in Wicklow and other counties in Ireland.

A great saving is effected by this plan. Each child costs only between £5 and £6 per annum. In the workhouse each child would cost about £9.

Very great care is used in the selection of the families in which the children are placed. The minister of the parish reports to the Committee in Dublin at stated times whether they are properly attended to, and members of the Committee visit them every year. This supervision tends to promote cleanliness and sobriety in the families with which the orphans live, as they would be at once removed if there were any deficiency in these particulars.

The happy result is seen in the exceedingly small amount of mortality amongst the children. Their ages range from 6 months to 14 or 15 years.

In the Protestant Orphan Society the mortality during the last ten years has

The average number of children during the ten years has been 409; the average number of deaths only 2 each year-not 1 per cent. per annum. In the other society, called the Protestant Orphan Union, the mortality has been as follows:

The average number of children during the last 10 years has been 101. The average number of deaths has not been 1 per cent., as there have been only 8 deaths in the ten years.

Contrast this mortality with that of the children in English and Scotch cities. In Manchester 50 per cent. die before they are 5 years old; in Glasgow, 54; in Edinburgh, 38; and in Aberdeen, 32 per cent. And throughout the kingdom half the children die before they reach the age of 14 years.

The exceedingly small mortality amongst the orphan children under the care of the Dublin Protestant Orphan Societies shows what attention to sobriety and cleanliness, on the part of parents and nurses, and a proper supply of pure air would effect in this country. It also shows to what a fearful extent murder prevails-the murder of innocent children-and the injury which accrues to our own country and the world from the loss of the services and the labours of those thus cut off in childhood, and thereby prevented from benefiting their country and the world, which they in most instances would have done, if they had not met with untimely deaths at the hands of their intemperate and uncleanly parents, and through the neglect of the community at large.

On the Progress of Manchester from 1840 to 1860.

By DAVID CHADWICK, F.S.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Secretary of Section F. Mr. David Chadwick stated that, having been requested by the Committee of Economic Science, at the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford, to prepare a paper on the progress of Manchester and Salford during the twenty years 1840-60, he would consider seriatim the increase of population and that of the principal manufacturing towns in the country; the annual value of property; the proportion of parliamentary representation to persons and property; the trade of the district, with particulars of cotton imports and exports of manufactured goods; improvements in cotton-machinery; wages of the operatives, with a comparative statement of the cost of food and clothing, and facilities for their social, physical, and intellectual advancement; the municipal and local governments of Manchester and Salford, noticing the taxation and local improvements effected within the period indicated.

Mr. Chadwick stated the population of the principal towns in Lancashire at each decennial period from 1801 to 1861, showing an increase in Manchester and Salford, from 94,876 in 1801 to 311,269 in 1841, and to 460,018 in 1861, the rate of progress being 47.79 per cent. in the last twenty years, and 384-86 per cent. in the last sixty years. Taking the twelve principal towns of the county during the same period, the increase was from 291,281 in 1801 to 929,405 in 1841, and to 1,417,662 in 1861. Comparing this progress with that of the entire county, and of England and Wales, the rate of increase has been, in the twelve town districts, from 1841 to 1861, 52-53 per cent.; and 1801 to 1861, 386.7 per cent.; in the county, in twenty years, 45'09 per cent.; and in sixty years, 260.71 per cent.; and in England and Wales, in twenty years, 26.06 per cent.; and in sixty years 125.6 per cent. In 1801 the population of Lancashire was 7.68 per cent. of the total population of England and Wales, or nearly 1-13th part thereof. In 1861, the per-centage had increased to 12.29, or nearly 1-8th part thereof.

The population in each township of the parish of Manchester, and in the parliamentary boroughs of Manchester and Salford, in 1851 and 1861, was then detailed, with the per-centage of increase in the ten years. It appeared that, owing to the extension of warehouses, &c., used only in the daytime, and abandoned at night, the population of the township of Manchester had decreased 104 per cent. during the last ten years, whilst that of all the remaining townships had increased, Chorlton-on-Medlock being the lowest (25.99 per cent.) and Bradford the highest (124.11 per cent.), the total increase in the parliamentary borough being 13.09 per cent. The population of the city proper (not including Bradford, Newton, and Harpurhey) had increased 1152 per cent. In Salford (parliamentary and municipal) the total increase in population was 20.33 per cent., detailed thus: -Salford township, 11.95; Broughton, 38-72; Pendleton, 46-93; part Pendlebury, 87.46.

1861.

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