Finally, one or two States have passed special regulations concerning the conduct of the bread-baking business. These provisions are that such work shall not be carried on in cellars; that workrooms shall not be used as sleeping rooms; that privies and water-closets shall not be maintained within a certain distance of the bakeries, etc.

Of all the States, Massachusetts possesses not only the most advanced and detailed code of labor laws but has made the most efficient provision for their enforcement. No better method, therefore, for showing the character of factory inspection in the United States, where it is best developed, can be adopted than to reproduce the summary of the duties of the inspectors of this State, as recapitulated by the chief factory inspector in his report for the year 1895. There is all the more excuse for reproducing the duties of the inspectors of this State, since it is to its laws that all of the States turn when contemplating similar legislation. On page 5 of this report the chief inspec tor says:

"There are now 26 officers exclusively employed in the inspection department. Some idea of the extent and nature of the duties of the inspectors may be had by reference to the statutes defining them; but not even the detailed reports of the several inspectors made to this office can give, to those not familiar with the matters discussed, an adequate idea of the vast amount of labor performed by this department. Its duties embrace the enforcement of the laws relating to the hours of labor; the protection of operatives from unguarded machinery; the employment of women and minors; the schooling of children employed in factories and workshops; the preservation of the health of females employed in mechanical, manufacturing, and mercantile establishments; reports of accidents in manufactories; safety appliances for elevators; provisions for escape from hotels and other buildings in case of fire; proper ventilation for factories and workshops, and uniform meal hours for children, young persons, and women employed therein; the suppression of nuisances from drains, and provisions for water-closets, etc., for the use of each sex employed in factories and workshops, and various other sanitary regulations; the inspection of buildings alleged to be unsafe or dangerous to life or limb, in case of fire or otherwise; the submission to the inspector for approval of a copy of plans and specifications of any building designed for certain public purposes, as factory, workshop, mercantile structure, hotels, apartment houses, lodging or tenement houses, above a certain height; communication between engineer's room and each room where machinery is run by steam, in every manufacturing establishment; proper safeguards at hatchways, elevator openings, and wellholes in public buildings, factories, and mercantile establishments; forbidding the use of portable seats in aisles or passageways in public halls, theaters, schoolhouses, churches, and public buildings during any service held therein; requiring fire

resisting curtains, approved by inspectors, for use in all theaters, etc.; competent watchmen, lights in hotels, gongs or other proper alarms, and notices posted describing means of escape from fire in boarding and lodging houses above a fixed size, family and public hotels; fire escapes on tenement or lodging houses three or more stories in height; prohibiting during working hours the locking of any inside or outside door of any building where operatives are employed; public buildings and schools in respect to cleanliness, suitable ventilation, and sanitary conveniencies; the weekly payment of wages by certain corporations to each of their employees; the inspection of uninsured steam boilers; the examination as to the competency of engineers and firemen in charge thereof; the enforcement of the act relating to the manufacture and sale of clothing made in unhealthy places; the enforcement of the act relative to the heating of street-railway cars, and the enforcement of the act requiring specifications to be furnished to persons employed in cotton, worsted, and woolen factories."

It is not necessary at this date, even were this the place, to attempt to show the necessity for, or all the advantages resulting from, factory inspection. Some of the most important of these latter, however, will bear mention. If it is desirable to have factory and labor laws, it is certainly desirable to have them enforced, and experience has demonstrated that without inspection many labor laws will remain dead letters. But apart from performing the duties for which they are created, they indirectly perform many other services.

Many of the inspectors of factories report that they have been of considerable use in spreading information concerning the best mechanical devices for guarding against accidents. In the performance of their duties they become acquainted with the best contrivances, and are able to suggest their employment in factories inefficiently equipped. The directors of these latter are often only too thankful to have them called to their attention. The reports of the inspectors, moreover, are becoming more and more valuable as being repositories of information concerning labor conditions of a character that can not be obtained elsewhere. They contain descriptions, accompanied by illustrations, and plans of the best devices for guarding machinery, of protecting elevator and shaft openings, of carrying away dust and odors by the use of exhaust fans, of the best forms of fire escapes, of plans for ventilating and heating factories, schoolhouses, and other buildings, etc. The practical contact of inspectors with labor conditions enables them to determine with especial accuracy the results of labor legislation, and to recommend with authority its amendment or elaboration.

In concluding this account of the inspection of factories and workshops in the United States, some mention should be made of the International Association of Factory Inspectors. This organization, though created as the result of private efforts, yet may be said to have

an official standing. It was created and held its first annual convention in 1887, since when annual meetings have been held. The object of the association is to bring together in annual convention all officers of the Government in the United States and Canada whose duties relate to the inspection of factories, workshops, and public buildings. It is scarcely necessary to comment upon the utility of such a gathering. The majority of inspectors are new and inexperienced in their duties. They can thus avail themselves of the experience of the older inspectors. Especially can the very desirable object of rendering more uniform the legislation and practices of the States be advanced. The report of the proceedings and the papers read at the conventions are not only separately published, but are frequently included as appendices to the reports of individual States.

MUTUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF PARENTS AND CHILDREN, GUARDIANSHIP, ETC., UNDER THE LAW. (a)

BY F. J. STIMSON.

By the common law of England all persons remained minors until they attained the age of 21, and it was the duty of parents to provide for the maintenance, protection, and education of their children while they remained minors, and for the necessary support of children even beyond that age if unable to work through disease or accident. The father had control of the person of his minor children, and had the right to the wages or benefit of his children's labor while they lived. with him, but had no other power over his child's estate than as his trustee or guardian. Both parent and child could justify for their acts in defense of each other, as in cases of self-defense, and children were charged, if of sufficient ability, with the duty of maintaining an indigent parent.

Minors could not sue or be sued but by guardian or next friend, and could, as a rule, make no binding contracts but for necessaries-food, clothing, or education expenses. But a minor might purchase lands, though the purchase would be incomplete, as he might either agree or disagree to it on coming of age. He might, of course, bind himself as an apprentice, and he might, by deed or will, appoint a guardian to his children.

These principles of the common law would, of course, continue without a statute in all the States of the Union where the law is derived from English sources (that is, all States with the exception of Florida, Louisiana, New Mexico, and Arizona); and such statutes as have been passed in the States which have adopted complete codes, or in others, are in substance the mere reexpression of these principles.

SECTION 1. Who are Minors; Definitions, etc.-In most of the States, as at common law, children, male or female, become of age at 21; and the California Code defines the period of coming of age to be the first minute of the proper birthday; (b) but in Vermont, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Maryland, Missouri, Arkansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Dakota, Montana, and Idaho a woman comes of age at 18; (c) and in several States a married woman of any

a The statutes are cited by the general section number, or by chapter, title, etc., and section of the last revision or general statutes of each State; annual laws by the year and chapter. The Dakota code is still in force in South Dakota, proprio vigore. b Cal. Civ. C., 26; Dak. Civ. C., 2509; Mont. Civ. C., 11; Okla., 774.

c Vt., 2736; Ohio, 3136; Ill., 64, 1; Iowa, 2237; Minn., 59, 2; Kans., 67, 1; Nebr., 1, 34, 1; Md., 93, 162; Mo., 5278; Ark., 3567; Cal. Civ. C., 25; Oregon, 2951; Nev., 4943; Wash., 1416; Dak, Civ. C., 10; Mont. Civ, C., 10; Idaho, 2405.

age may exercise all the powers of majority. (a) In Nebraska, when a woman over 16 is married, her minority ends. In Iowa, Texas, and Louisiana, all minors, male or female, attain their majority by marriage. (b) In Georgia, "the law prescribes certain ages at which persous shall be construed of sufficient maturity to discharge certain civil functions, to make contracts, and dispose of property. Prior to these ages they are minors, and for that disability unable to exercise those rights as citizens." (c)

SEC. 2. Powers of Minors.-As a general principle, minors can not make any contract whatever. (7) So, in Louisiana, minors under 16 can not dispose of any property except by marriage contract. (e) But in Connecticut, California, Nevada, Dakota, Idaho, Montana, and Utah every person, male or female, aged 18, may make a will of real or personal estate. (f) In Colorado an unmarried female of 18 may make a will, though, for ordinary purposes, she is not apparently of age until 21. (g) In Iowa, Texas, Louisiana (see § 1), and in Arizona, every married person, or person who has been married, whatever be his or her age, may make a will of real or personal estate; and so, in Oregon, can a woman, if married. (h) (See also § 1, note a.) Of course, in States where a woman attains majority at the age of 18, she may make a will under such restrictions as a married woman in ordinary cases; and also in Wisconsin all women of 18, and in Nebraska all women, may make a will, if married. (i) In Georgia, every person aged 14, male or female, may make a will of real or personal estate; and in New Mexico every male of 14 and female of 12; while in Kentucky a person under 21 may make a will only in pursuance of a power specially given to that effect. (j) In Louisiana, minors over 16 may make wills as if of full age; (k) and in several States wills in writing of personal property alone may be made by males, or unmarried females of 18. (1) So, in New York, a male of 18, or unmarried female of 16, may make a will of personal property; and in Colorado a male or unmarried female of 17. (m) The Louisiana Code reads, "the minor above 16 can dispose only mortis causa; but he may dispose in this manner of the same amount as a person of full age." (k)

SEC. 3. Contracts Specially Permitted to Minors, etc.-As a general

d Ga., 2731; but his deeds are voidable at his pleasure on attaining majority; Ga., 2891.

e La. C. C., 1476.

f Conn., 537; Cal. Civ. C., 1270; Nev., 3000; Dak. Civ. C., 1720; N. Dak., 3639; Idaho, 5725; Mont. Civ. C., 1720; Utah, 2617.

g Colo., 4652.

h Iowa, 2237, 2322; Tex., 1851, 4857; Ariz., 3232; Oregon, 3068.

Wis., 2277, 2281; Nebr., 1, 23, 123.

j Ga.. 2105, 2106; N. Mex., 1378; Ky., 4826.

k La. C. C., 1477.

Į R. I., 203, 5; Va., 2513; W. Va., 77, 2; Mo., 8868; Ark., 6491; Oregon, 3067; Ala.,

m N. Y. R. S., pt. ii, ch. 6, t. 1, § 21; Colo., 4652.