the scarf the joint shown at Fig. 492, Art. CARPENTRY, may be used. A beam is sometimes trussed with iron, as in Fig. 987, but this method is not recommended in practice. B. Fig. 987. It requires great accuracy of fitting, and is liable to have all its efficiency destroyed by small changes of dimension in its parts. Of extraordinary floors the one most worth mentioning appears to be that applied in Amsterdam to a room 60 feet square. This had neither joists nor girders, but consisted merely of three thicknesses of 14-inch boards laid one on the other and securely nailed together, and to very strong wall-plates. The lowest layer ran diagonally from corner to corner, the second layer also went diagonally, but from the opposite corners, so as to cross the first thickness at right angles. The upper set ran in the usual way from side to side. The floor thus became a strong thin plate of wood, supported and strained all round The cost of flooring is estimated by the square of its edges. 100 square feet. The following general principles apply to all kinds of flooring. The bearing timbers which sustain the weight, should, if possible, be laid across the narrowest way of the room. In a single-joisted floor, the joists should run in this direction, but in a double floor, the binding joists are the bearing pieces, and should be laid this way. In a framed floor, the girders become the bearing pieces, and should then have this advantage given them. In a square room, of course, the directions are immaterial. With any given quantity of timber, the singlejoisted floor has been proved, by direct experiment, to be the strongest form of any, and it also possesses the advantages of requiring fewer joints, and of distributing the weight borne more directly and generally over the walls. Against these merits, are to be laid the difficulty, when the span is great, of procuring a sufficiency of long timber, as well as the liability to disfigurements from partial strains of heavy goods or furniture, and finally, the facility with which sounds are transmitted unless some special means of prevention be adopted. Flooring-timbers should never be laid obliquely, but should be placed parallel to one or other wall of the room. Girders should never be laid over spaces, such as doors or windows. If, however, this position be unavoidable, the templates should be strong and long enough to throw the weight well on the piers. When first laid, the floor ought to be rather high in the centre, to allow for settling at the joints. When all is settled, the floor should be perfectly level. If it is cambered up, it must evidently exert a thrust outward on the walls. If so weak as to sink down in the centre, it as evidently tends to pull the wall-plates inward. In either case, the ceiling beneath will be cracked and disfigured. It is only when perfectly level that the floor exerts no thrust or strain on the walls. Common cheap floors are often laid with boards of from 7 to 9 inches in width, but the best floors have their boards or battens not more than from 3 to 5 inches wide. These last do not, of course, show the shrinkage of the stuff, as the ordinary constructions do in too many cases. In all the equations for dimensions, the constant for oak is higher than that for fir, on account of the liability of this timber to be cross-grained, and thus to become weakened in cutting. Short joists may also be used by being tenoned one into the other, and made to rest at the other end on the wall-plates, as shown in Fig. 988. Fig. 988. Partitions may be advantageously considered in this place. Their construction comes under the charge of the carpenter, and is usually proceeded with at the same time as that of the floors. Indeed, the constructions of the two are in some respects connected. The term partition is restricted to those internal divisions of a building, into the essential constructive part of which, timber enters in a greater or less degree. These divisions either consist of a framework of wood simply covered with laths and plastered, or the spaces in the wooden frames are filled in with brickwork. In the first case it is said to be a quarter partition, in the last case it is called a brick-nogging partition. Partitions are sometimes constructed so as to be dependent on or connected with the floor above or below, and in other cases they are made wholly independent of these floors, and self-supporting. One of the first kind need consist only of upright pieces of timber of a width sufficient to bear nailing, (say from 1 to 2 inches,) and of a depth suitable to the intended thickness of the partition, tenoned into a horizontal sill at top and bottom, and stiffened by struts placed between them. The distance between these uprights may be from nine inches to a foot. The laths are nailed upon these pieces, and covered with plaster. Such a partition as this, if it be not supported continuously up from the bottom of the FLOORS AND PARTITIONS-FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. 697 building, should rather be strapped from the floor or | building, as such failures are sure to be attended by truss above it, than allowed to bear on the floor be- cracked walls and ceilings. Partitions should therefore neath. The weight is then not unduly thrown on the be built of well-seasoned timber, the joints carefully joists beneath, with the certainty of cracking the drawn and fitted, and the whole allowed to stand in ceiling, nor does the partition become liable, by its its permanent place some time before it is lathed and settlement, to tear away from the ceiling of its own plastered. Settlements can then be remedied if room, and thus produce unsightly cracks in the serious, or if not, the timbers having once taken their plaster and cornice. But though it is often practica-bearings, may be safely covered. ble to obtain a continuous support up from below, it is by no means desirable to use it, as any unequal settlement of the main walls, and of the internal division, must crack the partition. Therefore it is better in all cases to make the partition selfsupporting, and dependent only on the two main walls. The partition becomes in fact a very deep truss. If there is no doorway to be made through from one room to the other, the ordinary king-post truss may be used for short spans. When the span is considerable, or when doorways are to be made through the partition, the truss may assume the queen-post form, as in Fig. 989. In Fig. 990 is shown a form of Fig. 989. partition adapted for two doorways. The sill or tie must be either carried under the flooring, as in Fig. 989, or may be carried over the head of the doorway, as in Fig. 990. Fig. 990. The principals of the truss (which in partitionwork are called braces) should be inclined at an angle of about 40° to the horizon. This will, therefore, to a great extent, determine the form of truss to be employed. The nature of the strains on the several pieces may be determined by the rules already given in the Article CARPENTRY. In deciding on the substance of the timbers, due regard must, of course, be had to the weight to be borne by the truss, as in some cases the partition has not only to support itself, but also a floor, and perhaps other partitions above. Any small shrinkage of timber or slipping at joints, will do more harm in partition-work than the same amount of yielding in almost any other part of a In a brick-nogging partition, the wood pieces. (called nogging-pieces) should project a little on both sides beyond the brickwork, to allow of the laths being nailed to them. When the thinness of a partition is not so much an object as its strength and impenetrability to sound, it is better to nail the uprights which take the laths on the outsides of the main truss, instead of cutting them so as to fit in between the timbers of this truss. This plan takes rather more timber, and makes the partition thicker, but it renders it much stronger, and also far less pervious to sound. Partitions are measured like floors, by the square. In computing the required strength of the pieces. in a partition, the following may be taken as the weights of the parts to be supported : A square of common quarter partition 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. 1,300 to 2,000,, 2,500 to 4,000,, It is a safe plan to use the highest numbers when the truss is of considerable length, and to employ the lower numbers when the span over which the truss is to be carried is short. FLOSS-SILK, a name applied to the portions of ravelled silk broken off in the filature of the cocoons of the silk-worm. It is carded like cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse yarn or thread, with which common silk fabrics are made. See SILK. FLOUR. See BREAD. FLOWERS of sulphur, a term applied to sublimed SULPHUR. The old chemists used also to speak of flowers of benzoin, flowers of zinc, &c., from the resemblance of these sublimed substances to the dust or pollen of flowers. FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. The manufacture of artificial flowers, first brought to a high degree of excellence by the Italians, and now most successfully prosecuted by the French and English, is one of no small importance considering the amount of skill and labour which it brings into requisition. The perfection to which this art has been carried was illustrated in a remarkable manner in the Great Exhibition. The imitations of vegetable nature, there shown in its blooming freshness and in its decay, were perfectly wonderful, embracing the most difficult and complicated forms, as well as the most simple. The grotesquely varied shapes and delicate colourings of Orchids and other tropical plants, were as successfully imitated as the familiar forms of rose, lily, and mignonette. So accurate, indeed, were the copies of rare and fragile plants, that we have the testimony of a professor of botany to their value in reference to his science. AF A Such being the successful results of this manufac- | iron, Fig. 993, about six inches high, fixed in a massive ture, it must no longer be considered as a mere leaden or wooden base. On this rod is threaded a auxiliary to the toilet. It is worthy of a higher rank large bobbin, on which is wound a quantity of silk than has yet been accorded to it; and the ingenious or wool. On its summit may be fixed a nut to preprocesses connected with it are well deserving of vent the bobbin when in rapid motion from whirling notice. The first attempt at making artificial flowers among civilized nations, was by twisting ribbons of different colours somewhat into the shape of flowers, and fastening them to wire stems. This yielded to the use of feathers, which were far more elegant, but could not always be made to imitate in colour the flowers which they represented, there being considerable difficulty in getting them to take the dyes. Where the plumage of birds is of great brilliancy, the natural colours admirably answer the purpose, and do not fade or lose their resplendent hues. Thus in South America, the savages have long known how to fabricate beautiful artificial flowers from such plumage. In Italy the cocoons of silkworms are often used, and have a soft and velvety appearance, while they take a brilliant dye. In France the finest cambric is the chief material, while wax is also largely employed. The arrangement of the work-covered with bas-reliefs, and the nut at the top shop, and the variety and use of tools, where flower- taking the form of an arrow, a blossom, &c. making is practised on a large scale, are as fol- the more simple and free from ornament, the better is the holder for use, any unnecessary projections only acting as so many means of entangling the silk. lows: A large and well-lighted room, which has the means of warmth in winter, is selected, and along its whole extent is placed a table, similar to the writing tables used in schools, where the work-people may have a good light as long as possible. This table is fitted with drawers containing numerous compartments, arranged so as to receive and keep separate the small parts of flowers, such as petals, stalks, minute blossoms, catkins, buds, leaves not mounted on their stalks, and all other parts not fit to be placed among more finished specimens. It is desirable that the table be covered with oil-cloth, so that it may be frequently cleansed, by washing, from the stains of the different colours employed. Along the whole extent of this table are placed flower-holders, that is, light frames with horizontal iron wires, to which the flowers, when attached to their stalks, are suspended by merely crooking the end of the stalk, and hanging it on the wire. Sometimes tightly strained pack thread is used instead of wire. Figs. 991 and 992 represent A Fig. 992. Fig. 093. off the rod, but this is often omitted. Ladies who work for their pleasure, frequently have this bobbinholder made in an ornamental form, the base being But The flower-maker does not take up flowers or their parts with the fingers, but with pincers of the simplest descrip tion, Fig. 994, Fig. 994. which are inces- Fig. 991. two forms of flower-holder; in both cases the frame is fixed to the table. Along the table are also ranged bobbin-holders in considerable numbers, not unlike those used by weavers. The bobbin-holder is a rod of Fig. 995. which are gummed and dyed. A dressing-frame, Fig. 995, consists of two uprights of hard wood, with two cross pieces of the same, capable of adjustment. The frame is fitted with crooks for the attachment of the material, or with a band of coarse canvas to which the material can be sewn. These frames have no feet, and are fitted sometimes against a wall, sometimes upon a chair. When covered with the material, they are hung up against the wall by one of the cross pieces, until it is time to dismount them. Fig. 996. q There are also various useful implements, called by the work-people "irons," for cutting out petals, calyxes, and bracts, and for giving to leaves those various serrated and other forms, which produce such wonderful variety in foliage. These cutting tools, two of which are shown in Figs. 996 and 997, are of iron, with a hollow handle, flat at its upper extremity, that the hammer may be readily applied. They are about four or five inches long, and of numerous sizes and varieties. That they may cut rapidly and clearly, the edges are occasionally rubbed with dry soap. When a leaf becomes attached to the interior, and cannot be shaken out, a little ring of wire, Fig. 998, Fig. 997. is introduced in a hole, j, Fig. 997, left for that purpose to disengage it. The material is doubled several times under the cutter, so that several petals or leaves may be cut out at once. The block on which the leaves are cut out is rather a complicated Fig. 998. affair. It is placed near a window, and as far as possible from the workers, that the blows of the hammer may not interfere with their employment. Sometimes it consists of a very stout framework of timber, on which is placed a mattress of straw to deaden the blows, and upon this mattress a thick smooth piece of lead, forming a square table, Fig. 999. In some cases a solid block of timber is used, a portion of the trunk of a tree taken near the root, and on this the mattress and the leaden table are placed. The hammers used at this work are short and heavy; one is especially adapted for smoothing the surface of the lead when it becomes indented all over by the blows of the workman. Fig. 999. The cutting out of the leaves and petals is only a preliminary operation to the more perfect imitation of nature: the leaves must next be gauffered to represent the veins, the folds, and the endless touches and indentations which are found in the natural plant. Gauffering is executed in two ways, the first and simplest being that which merely gives the hollow form to the petals of roses, cherry-blossoms, peach, hawthorn, and numerous other flowers which preserve, until the period of decay, somewhat of the form of a bud, all the petals beautifully curving inwards. To imitate these, the gauffering tools are simple polished balls of iron fixed on iron rods, with a wooden handle attached, as shown in Fig. 1000. The balls are of various sizes, from a pin's head upwards, to adapt them to the minute blossoms of such flowers as the forget-menot, which require only the slightest degree of curvature, and to the large flowers of camellia, dahlia, mallow, &c., where the curvature is often very great. These balls are made slightly warm, so as to fix the forms decidedly, without effacing the colours. The petals are placed on a cushion, and the Fig. 1000. iron is pressed against them. But curvature alone is not sufficient: there is, in many petals, a decided fold or plait up the centre, springing from the point where it is attached to the germen. This fold can be obtained by the use of a prism - shaped iron, Fig. 1001. Conical, cylindrical, and hooked irons, Figs. 1002, 1003, are also useful to imitate the various minutiæ of the blossoms. A cushion near each artist Fig. 1001. Fig. 1002. Fig. 1003. serves as a rest to the gauffering irons, which must be preserved from the least taint of dust, seeing that they are applied to the most delicately-beautiful portions of the flower. The veins and curves of leaves are given by gauffers composed of two distinct parts, on each of which is severally moulded in copper, the upper and under surface of the leaf, as shown in Fig. 1004. Sometimes, one part is of iron, the other of copper. It is necessary to have a very large assortment of these gauffers; in fact, they should correspond in number with the cutting-irons by which the forms of leaves are punched out. The leaf or leaves being inserted in the gauffer, a powerful pressure is given to stamp the desired form. This is accomplished either by means of a heavy iron pressed on the lid, or by two or three smart blows of a hammer, or, better still, by the uniform action of a press, such as is shown in Fig. 1005. Besides the above articles, the workshop is provided Fig. 1005. Fig. 1004. with an abundance of boxes, scissors large and small, for cutting wire, as well as textile fabrics, camels' hair pencils, sponges, canvas-bags, &c., that everything likely to be needed by the work-people may be immediately at hand. The material of which flowers are made is, first and best, (as already stated,) French cambric, but a great quantity of Scotch cambric, jaconet, and even fine calico, are also used. For some descriptions of flowers, clear muslin, crape, and gauze, are wanted; | side, to represent the glossy upper surface of leaves, and with starch on the other, to give the velvety appearance of the under side. This preparation, coloured to suit the exact shade to be given to the leaf, must be just of the proper consistence, making the leaf neither too stiff nor too limp, while it gives the proper kind of under surface. Where the leaf requires a marked degree of this velvet texture, it is given by the nap of cloth reduced to fine powder, aud properly tinted. A little gum is lightly passed over the surface, and when partly dry, this powder is dusted over it, the superfluous portion being shaken off. These preparations having been completed, it yet remains to give to the leaves after they are cut out, the appearance of nature, by representing the veins and indentations which they always exhibit. For this purpose various gauffering-tools are made use of. and for some very thick petals, satin and velvet are necessary. These materials are provided in various colours, as well as in white, but fresh tints have frequently to be given. These are laid on with a sponge, or a camels'-hair pencil, or the petal is dipped in colour: a quantity of green taffeta should always be at hand for leaves. The colouring matters used in dyeing the material for the petals are as follows. For red, in its various shades, Brazil wood is largely used, also carmine, lake, and carthamus. The best way of treating Brazil wood is to macerate it cold in alcohol for several days; a little salt of tartar, potash, or soap, will make this colour pass into purple; a little alum gives it a fine crimsonred, and an acid will make it pass into yellow, of which the shade is deeper according to the quantity employed. Carmine is better in lumps than in powder; diffused in pure water, it gives rose-colour; a little salt of tartar brightens the tint. Carthamus is dissolved cold in alcohol; heat, as well as the alkalies, causes it to pass to orange. The acids render it of a lively and pure red; a very delicate flesh-colour is obtained by rinsing the material coloured with car-coloured starch on both sides, and stretched on thamus, in slightly-soapy water. Blue colours are prepared by means of indigo, or Prussian-blue. Sometimes balls of common blue are used, steeped in water. Indigo is first dissolved in sulphuric acid. This is then diluted with water, and powdered chalk or whitening is added until effervescence ceases. The liquor is afterwards decanted off, and the sediment, when washed, gives a paler colour. Greater intensity is given to indigo by adding a little potash. Yellow colours are given by turmeric dissolved in spirits of wine, by saffron, chrome-yellow, &c. Green colours are obtained by mixtures of blue and yellow; violets, by mixtures of red and blue, and by archil and a blue bath; lilacs, by archil only. The method of making a rose will give a good idea of the manufacture in general. First of all the petals are cut out from the finest and most beautiful cambric. The pattern-shapes must be of different sizes, because in the same rose, the petals are never equal: a good assortment of patterns enables the artist the better to imitate the variety of nature. When the petals are thus prepared, they have to be dyed in a bath of carmine in alkaline water. For this purpose, they are held separately by means of pincers, and dipped first in the bath, and then into pure water, to give them that delicacy of tint which is characteristic of the rose. But as the colour of the petal usually deepens towards the centre, a tint is there laid on with the pencil, while a drop of water is laid on the point of insertion of the petal, to make the colour there fade off, as it does in nature, to white. If the right tint is not given at first, the processes are repeated: any slight imperfection, such as is seen in the petals of most living flowers, being also accurately imitated with the pencil. The taffeta employed in making leaves, is dyed of the proper green in the piece before cutting out. It is then stretched out to dry, and afterwards further prepared with gum-arabic on one The material for the leaflets of the calyx in roses, is subjected to another process immediately on coming out of the dye, in order to preserve the firmness which it is necessary the calyx should have. To this end, the taffeta while still damp is impregnated with the drying-frame: when perfectly dry, the leaflets are cut out according to pattern. Buds are made also of taffeta, or if partially open, they are made of white kid tinted of a suitable colour, stuffed with cotton, or crumb of bread, and tied firmly with silk to slender wires. The stamens are prepared by attaching to a little knot of worsted a sufficient quantity of ends of silk to form the heart of the flower. These ends of silk, cut to the proper length, are then stiffened in kid jelly, and when dry, the extremities are slightly moistened with gum-arabic and dipped in a preparation of wheaten flour, coloured yellow, to represent the pollen. Each thread takes up its separate grain and is left to dry. The heart of the flower being thus prepared, and fixed to a stem of wire, the smaller petals are arranged round it, and fixed by paste at their points. The larger petals succeed, some of which are hollowed or wrinkled, while constant care is taken to give them a natural appearance in disposing them around the centre. The calyx comes next, and encloses the ends of all the petals. It is fixed with paste, and surrounded with more or less of cotton thread, which also generally encloses one or more wires attached to that which bears the heart of the flower, and forming the germ. The whole is covered with silver-paper tinted green. The leaves are mounted on copper wire, and are arranged on the stem in the order which nature teaches, the covering of cotton and tissue-paper hiding the joints. In addition to the manufacture of flowers intended as closely as possible to represent their living models, there is a large branch of the art in which the aim seems to be to depart from nature as far as possible. These fancy flowers are the fruit of the artist's peculiar taste, and are therefore as impossible to describe, as we sincerely wish they were impossible to execute. There are also flowers of natural forms, but of unnatural colours, being made to assume |