THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XI NEW YORK THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY Ref AE 5 E36 1910a vill Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Fruit. A. B. R. A. B. W. K. SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S. A. Ca. { A. E. H. L. A. E. S. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Friction. Gauss. Hon. Function: Functions of Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Real Variables. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. Gastrotricha. A. G. B.* HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E. A. G. D. A. H. Sm. A. M. Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.,HIST.S. Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D. Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St Andrews. Author See the biographical article, Clerke, Agnes M. See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred. A. M. C. A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. {Geology. {Franck, Sebastian; Gallars. :{ { Georgetown, British Frontenac et Palluau. Gem: II. (in part). • Free Church of Scotland (in part). {Friends, Society of. { and VII. Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Geodesy (in part). A. R. C. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, French Revolution: 1.900. Republican Calendar; Germany: History (in part and Bibliography. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. {Garrick, David (in pert). os{ Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Foundations of Geometry: VI. (in pert). A. W. W. B. A. W. R. HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member Gelasius II. { :{ Plenipoten-{ Editor of The Sphere. Author of Sixty Years of Victorian Literature; Immortal Gaskell, Elizabeth. C. MI. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. C. M. K. C. PL. C. R. B. C. R. C. C. T.* C. We. C. W. W. D. C. D. F. T. Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- Garashanin. SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908). CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ÈS.-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author Free Ports. Franks; CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D. Galilee (in part); Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of Palestine. Author CECIL WEATHERLY. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. { { Gate. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas Gas Engine. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Fugue. D. H. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal - { French Revolutionary Wars: |