THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

A

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XI
FRANCISCANS to GIBSON

NEW YORK

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY

Ref AE

5 E36 1910a vill

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by

The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Fruit.
Classification of Flowering Plants; &c.

A. B. R.

A. B. W. K.

SIR ALEXANDER BLACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S.
Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. Consulting
Engineer to Board of Ordnance.

A. Ca.

{

A. E. H. L.

A. E. S.

ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR.

AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Friction.

Gauss.

Hon. Function: Functions of

Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Secretary to the London Mathematical Society.

ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Real Variables.

Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. Gastrotricha.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.

A. G. B.*

HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.C.E.

A. G. D.

A. H. Sm.

A. M.

Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive
and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E.

ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.,HIST.S.

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada.
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating
to the Constitutional History of Canada.

ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A.

Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum.
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue
of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum; &c.

REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D.

Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St Andrews. Author
of History of Religion; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.

See the biographical article, Clerke, Agnes M.

See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred.

A. M. C.

A. N.

ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

{Geology.

{Franck, Sebastian; Gallars.

:{

{

Georgetown, British
Guiana.

Frontenac et Palluau.

Gem: II. (in part). •

Free Church of Scotland (in part).

{Friends, Society of.
{Geometry. VI. (in part)

{

and VII.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Geodesy (in part).
the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.

A. R. C.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, French Revolution:

1.900.

Republican Calendar; Germany: History (in part and Bibliography.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.

See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.

{Garrick, David (in pert). os{

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Foundations of Geometry: VI. (in pert).
Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c.

A. W. W.

B. A. W. R.

HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S.

C. H. Ha.

CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member Gelasius II.
of the American Historical Association.

{ :{

Plenipoten-{

Editor of The Sphere. Author of Sixty Years of Victorian Literature; Immortal Gaskell, Elizabeth.
Memories; The Brontës, Life and Lellers; &c.

C. MI.

CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.

C. M. K.

C. PL.

C. R. B.

C. R. C.

C. T.*

C. We.

C. W. W.

D. C.

D. F. T.

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- Garashanin.

SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908).
Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, Bristol. _Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871,
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor
of Kennedy's Ethnological and Linguistic Essays; Diplomacy and International
Law.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ÈS.-L.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author
of Études sur le règne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duché mérovingien d'Alsace et la legende
de Sainte-Odile.

Free Ports.

Franks;
Fredegond;
Germanic Laws, Early.

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, Gerard of Cremona.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.

CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D.

Galilee (in part);
Galilee, Sea of (in part).

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of Palestine. Author
of The City of Jerusalem; The Bible and the East; The Hillites and their Language; &c.
REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908).
Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge Geometrical Continuity.
University, 1887-1888. Author of Geometrical Conics; &c.

CECIL WEATHERLY.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.

{

{

Gate.

SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General Galilee, Sea of (in part).
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From. Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c.

Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas Gas Engine.
Engine.

DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.

Fugue.

D. H.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical
works.

DAVID HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal -
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c.

{

French Revolutionary Wars:
Naval Operations.