The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the mountain ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 30 m. to the north. To these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which occupies a considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the middle districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the Fläming hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the Lüneburger Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of Hanover. A second tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the Baltic, without, however, approaching its shores. This plateau contains a considerable number of lakes, and is divided into three portions by the Vistula and the Oder. The most eastward is the so-called Prussian Scenplatte. Spirdingsee (430 ft. above seaare situated in the centre of the plateau, and give rise to the Pregel. Some peaks near the Russian frontier attain to 1000 ft. The Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the Vistula and the Oder, extends from S. W. to N.E., its greatest elevation being in the neighbourhood of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.). The Seenplatte of Mecklenburg, on the other hand, stretches from S.E. to N.W., and most of its lakes, of which the Müritz is the largest, send their waters towards the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which surround the bays of the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be regarded as a continuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest parts, therefore, of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, are the central districts from about 52° to 53° N. lat., where the Vistula, Netze, Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy lowlands (in German called Brüche), which have been considerably reduced by the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements due in large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the S.E. of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication. West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the Havel lakes, to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general the soil of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the cultivation nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labour. Long stretches of ground are covered by moors, and there turí cutting forms the principal occupation of the inhabitants. The greatest extent of moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the plain, in Oldenburg and East Frisia. The plain contains, however, a few districts of the utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the central Elbe, and the marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and the north coast of Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which, within the last two centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from the sea by means of immense dikes.

succeeds town as far down as Düsseldorf. The western boundary of this valley is formed in the first instance by the Vosges, where granite summits rise from under the surrounding red Triassic rocks (Sulzer Belchen, 4669 ft.). To the south the range is not continuous with the Swiss Jura, the valley of the Rhine being connected here with the Rhone system by low ground known as the Gate of Mülhausen. The crest of the Vosges is pretty high and unbroken, the first convenient pass being near Zabern, which is followed by the railway from Strassburg to Paris. On the northern side the Vosges are connected with the Hardt sandstone plateau (Kalmit. 2241 ft.), which rises abruptly from the plain of the Rhine. The mountains south of Mainz, which are mostly covered by vineyards, are lower, the Donnersberg, however, raising its head to 2254 ft. These hills are bordered on the west by the high plain of Lorraine and the coal-level and 46 sq. m. in area) and Mauersee are the largest lakes; they fields of Saarbrücken, the former being traversed by the river Mosel. The larger part of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German part possesses great mineral wealth in its rich layers of ironstone (siderite) and in the coal-fields of the Saar. The tract of the Hunsrück, Taunus and Eifel is an extended plateau, divided into separate sections by the river valleys. Among these the Rhine valley from Bingen to Bonn, and that of the Mosel from Trier to Coblenz, are winding gorges excavated by the rivers. The Eifel presents a sterile, thinly-peopled plateau, covered by extensive moors in several places. It passes westwards imperceptibly into the Ardennes. The hills on the right bank of the Rhine also are in part of a like barren character, without wood; the Westerwald (about 2000 ft.), which separates the valleys of the Sieg and Lahn, is particularly so. The northern and southern limits of the Niederrheinische Gebirge present a striking contrast to the central region. In the south the declivities of the Taunus (2890 ft.) are marked by the occurrence of mineral springs, as at Ems on the Lahn, Nauheim, Homburg. Soden, Wiesbaden, &c., and by the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines. To the north of this system, on the other hand, lies the great coal basin of Westphalia, the largest in Germany. In the south of the hilly duchy of Hesse rise the isolated mountain groups of the Vogelsberg (2530 ft.) and the Rhön (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the Fulda, which uniting farther north with the Werra forms the Weser. To the east of Hesse lies Thuringia, a province consisting of the far-stretching wooded ridge of the Thuringian Forest (Thüringerwald; with three peaks upwards of 3000 ft. high), and an extensive elevated plain to the north. Its rivers are the Saale and Unstrut. The plateau is bounded on the north by the Harz, an isolated group of mountains, rich in minerals, with its highest elevation in the bare summit of the Brocken (3747 ft.). To the west of the Harz a series of hilly tracts is comprised under the name of the Weser Mountains, out of which above Minden the river Weser bursts by the Porta Westphalica. A narrow ridge, the Teutoburger Wald (1300 ft.), extends between the Weser and the Ems as far as the neighbourhood of Osnabrück.

To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of the Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains, occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger eastward to the Elbe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe. In the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with the Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia. The southern sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the north it slopes gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected by the deep valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no means fertile, the Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various branches of industry have taken root there in numerous small places. Around Zwickau there are productive coal-fields, and mining for metals is carried on near Freiberg. In the east a tableland of sandstone, called Saxon Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines into which it has been eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its most notable features is the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes from it. Numerous quarries, which supply the North German cities with stone for buildings and monuments, have been opened along the valley. The standstone range of the Elbe unites in the east with the low Lusatian group, along the east of which runs the best road from northern Germany to Bohemia. Then comes a range of lesser hills clustering together to form the frontier between Silesia and Bohemia. The most western group is the Isergebirge, and the next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about 20 miles' length, with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the Schneekoppe (5266 ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the southern declivities of this range contain the sources of the Elbe. The hills north and north-east of it are termed the Silesian Mountains. Here one of the minor coal-fields gives employment to a population grouped round a number of comparatively small centres. One of the main roads into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the eastern base of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the mountains are grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse forces its way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the cast by the Sudetic group, in which the Altvater rises to almost 4900 ft. The eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently away to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the international traffic, like that through the Mülhausen Gate in Alsace. Geographers style this the Moravian Gate.

Rivers.-Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished: those of the Memel, Pregel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems, Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems belong entirely, and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The Danube has its sources on German soil; but only fifth part of its course is German. Its total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian frontier at Passau, where the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant from its sources. It is navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above Passau; and its tributaries the Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmühl are also navigable. The Rhine is the most important river of Germany, although neither its sources nor its mouths are within the limits of the empire. From the Lake of Constance to Basel (122 m.) the Rhine forms the boundary between the German empire and Switzerland; the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is situated on the northern bank of the river. From Basel to below Emmerich the Rhine belongs to the German empire-about 470 m. or four-sevenths of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance as are also the Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg, the Lahn, the Lippe, the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the Saar and Sauer. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and river craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely branching system of canals, as the Ems-Jade and Dortmund-Ems canals. The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m., above the point where they unite, form by their junction the Weser, which has a course of 271 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the Aller, the Leine from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Oceangoing steamers, however, cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at Bremerhaven. The Elbe, after a course of 250 m., enters German territory near Bodenbach, 490 m. from its mouth. It is navigable above this point through its tributary, the Moldau, to Prague. Hamburg may be reached by vessels of 17 ft. draught. The navigable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale (below Naumburg), the Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The Oder begins to be navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m. from its mouth, receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse and the Warthe. Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the German empire, within which it is a broad, navigable stream of considerable volume. On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach Königsberg, and river barges reach Insterburg; the Alle, its tributary, may also be navigated. The Memel is navigable in its course of 113 m. from the Russian frontier. Germany is thus a country abounding in natural waterways, the total length of them being estimated at 7000 m. But it is only the Rhine, in its middle course, that has at all times sufficient volume of water to meet the requirements of a good navigable river.

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one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and
winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60° to
62°, the January temperature falls as low as 26° to 28° in West
Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22° to 26° in East Prussia and upper
Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by
frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the Bavarian
plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for
January being 25° to 26°.
As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where
precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of
summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes
a middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe
and the aridity of the east. There are considerable differences
between particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian
tableland and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel,
Sauerland, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhôn, Vogelsberg, Spessart,
the Black Forest, the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated
at 34 in. or more, while in the lower terraces of south-western
Germany, as in the Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated
at 30 to 32 in. only. The same average obtains also on the humid
north-west coast of Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In
the remaining parts of western Germany, on the shores of farther
Pomerania, and in East Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in.
In western Germany there is a district famous for the scarcity of
rain and for producing the best kind of wine: in the valley of the
Rhine below Strassburg, in the Palatinate, and also in the valley
of the Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg,
Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the plateau of Thuringia,
West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also to be classed among
the more arid regions of Germany, the annual rainfall being 16 to
20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July, and vary between
fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, descending in the
eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.

Flora.-The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanero-
gamic and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section
of the central European zone, and its flora is largely under the
influence of the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree
here coalesce. All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound.
Wheat, rye, barley and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt
only in the south and buckwheat in the north and north-west.
Maize only ripens in the south. Potatoes grow in every part of the
country, those of the sandy plains in the north being of excellent
quality. All the commoner sorts of fruit-apples, pears, cherries,
&c.-grow everywhere, but the more delicate kinds, such as figs,
apricots and peaches, are confined to the warmer districts. The vine
flourishes as far as the 51° N., but only yields good wine in the
districts of the Rhine and Danube. Flax is grown in the north,
and hemp more particularly in the central districts. Rape can be
produced everywhere when the soil permits. Tobacco is cultivated
on the upper Rhine and in the
valley of the Oder. The
northern plain, especially in
the province of Saxony, pro-
duces beet (for sugar), and hops
are largely grown in Bavaria,
Württemberg, Alsace, Baden
and the Prussian province of
Posen.

Speaking generally, northern
Germany is not nearly so well
wooded as
Forests.

central

and southern Germany, where indeed most of the lower mountains are covered with timber, as is indicated by the frequent use of the termination wald affixed to the names of the mountain ranges (as Schwarzwald, Thüringerwald, &c.). The Seenplatten" are less wooded than the hill country, but the eastern portion of the northern lowlands is well provided with timber. A narrow strip along the shores of the Baltic is covered with oaks and beeches; farther inland, and especially east of the Elbe, coniferous trees are the most prevalent, praticularly the Scotch fir; birches are also abundant. The mountain forests consist chiefly of firs, pines and larches, but contain also silver firs, beeches and oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts appear on the terraces of the Rhine valley and in Swabia and Franconia. The whole north-west of Germany is desti

States of the Empire.

Duchies

Brunswick

tute of wood, but to compensate for this the people have ample
supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches of turf.
Fauna.-The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great.
Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found every-
where; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they find
their way sometimes from French territory to the western provinces,
or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the
hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game
there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the
wild rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests
of East Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in
the fields, woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse,
partridges, snipe, woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful
all over the country, and in recent years preserves have been largely
stocked with pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage
remain in Germany differs considerably with the different species.
The stork is seen for about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, the
snow-goose 260, the snipe 220. In northern Germany these birds
arrive from twenty to thirty days later than in the south.
The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and
species are few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant;
after them rank the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch
and the lamprey. The Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe
abound in crayfish, and in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches
are bred. In addition to frogs, Germany has few varieties of
Amphibia. Of serpents there are only two poisonous kinds, the
common viper and the adder (Kreuzoller).

Population. Until comparatively recent times no estimate of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any value. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was divided into some hundred states, but there was no central agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform plan. The formation of the German Confederation in 1815 effected but little change in this respect, and it was left to the different states to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On the foundation, however, of the German customs union, or Zollverein, between certain German states, the necessity for accurate statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile trustworthy tables Researches show the population of the German empire, as at present constituted, to have been: (1816) 24,833,396; (1855) 36,113,644; and (1871) 41,058,792. The following table shows the population and area of each of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875, 1900 and 1905:

Area and Population of the German States.

Kingdoms

Prussia.

Bavaria

134.616 24,691,433 | 25.742.404
29,292 4.863,450 5,022,390
5.789 2,556,244 2,760,586
1,818.539 1,881,505

2.966

852,894

884.218

1,119,893 1,209,175 407-6

Mecklenburg-Schwerin

5.068

557.897

Saxe-Weimar

1.397

286,183

292.933

362.873

388,095 277-8

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