INTRODUCTION.

TH

HIS closing period of the Medieval Church is throughout an illustration of the way in which, under Divine Providence, the conditions are made ready for a great crisis. The revolution of the sixteenth century came as a surprise to men only because they had not the insight to discover the inevitable goal of the preceding events. Through the space of two centuries Europe had been preparing for that season of upheaval and readjustment. Designedly or undesignedly, all parties the State, the Church, the critic within the Church, and the agitator who was cast out of its fellowship had been making their contribution toward the final result. Even those who were most concerned to preserve the old order of things intact became, through their blind and selfish policy, the instigators and servants of revolution. Nearly the whole list of topics, therefore, upon which we now enter, might be classed as antecedents of the Protestant Reformation.

The reason why humanism is not treated among these topics is not the lack of a title to the same classification. It was truly a forerunner of Protestantism. By proclaiming the permanent worth of the classic

systems it gained recognition for the interests of civilization in general, and provided an offset to the dominance of the purely ecclesiastical. It thus assisted to a departure from the mediaval basis. But it was an accompaniment of the first stages of Protestantism, as well as a preparation. It will be of practical advantage, therefore, to defer its treatment till we reach the Reformation era.

Some of the topics which have engaged our attention in previous periods scarcely require a detailed consideration in this. Aside from features connected with the papacy, church constitution does not exhibit many noteworthy developments. A phase of some importance in the relations of ecclesiastics to the State was that which grew out of the increase of monarchical power and independence, such as we find in England and France toward the close of the period. This tended to limit in a measure the immunities which had been claimed by the clergy.

In the sphere of discipline, a principal fact to be noticed is the enormous extent to which the sale of indulgences was carried. The closing of the crusades was far from involving a sealing up of the treasury of merits. It was kept open to the hand of the Pope, and any undertaking which he was pleased to call a holy war, whether directed against a prince, a papal rival, or a company of heretics, was made an occasion for a generous offer of indulgences. Thus John XXII. endeavored to sustain his unrighteous attack against Louis of Bavaria by promise of the same indulgences which were customarily obtained by joining the Eastern crusade. Urban VI. offered like favors to those who

John

would assist in overthrowing the antipope. XXIII. sought, through an extensive sale of indulgences, the means of humbling Ladislaus, King of Naples. Martin V. promised plenary indulgences to all who would take up arms against the Hussites; and Innocent VIII. urged on the Christians of Savoy and France against the Waldenses in Piedmont, by the expectation of an equal reward. Aside from these more prominent occasions of distribution, there was a great throng of local interests to which response was given. The work of the Inquisition involved continual drafts upon the unfailing treasury; in fact, so far as a profusion of indulgences could cheer the officials of the Holy Office along their hard path, they were not destitute of comfort. Among subordinate agents engaged in trafficking with these spiritual goods, not a few, no doubt, were genuine prototypes of Tetzel, and practised in a shameless way upon the ignorance of the people.1 While the abuse was not effectually dealt with, it did. not escape censure. The Council of Constance left on record both its recognition of scandalous malpractice and its desire to place it under restraint.2

1 We read of some who went so far in disregarding all limitations upon the value of indulgences, that they proclaimed their efficacy to deliver the damned from hell. (Raynaldus, anno 1453, n. 19; Amort, De Origine, Progressu, Valore ac Fructu Indulgentiarum, pars ii. sect. i. cap. xvi.) This, of course, was going further than the authorities could allow.

2 The Council annulled all grants of indulgences made since the time of Clement V., and gave the following as the reason for its action: "Quia tempore schismatis, quo singula quasi spiritualia publicè exponebantur venditioni, multæ quæstuationes ac petitiones cum quamplurium indulgentiarum et concessionum privilegio, ut verosimiliter præsumitur, pro

In the department of worship there was a tendency, along with increased acceptance of the immaculate conception, to render increased homage to the Virgin. Two new festivals, those of the Presentation and the Visitation, were instituted in her honor. The credulous found new occasion for Mariolatry in the fable respecting the miraculous transfer of the house of the Virgin from Palestine to Loretto. There were, no doubt, some offsets to these crudities; but in the extensive lack of edifying preaching, the means for disabusing the popular mind of shallow and superstitious notions were sadly inadequate.

pecunia plùs, quàm pro animarum salute sunt concessæ in gravamen pauperum, et ecclesiastici status ridiculum, et quibus velut ex facilitate veniæ incentivum præbetur delinquendi." (Amort, pars ii. sect. ii. cap. x.)