that light in which they seem to possess their chief, if not only significance and interest; but now we are told, as if by authority, that the majority of these very passages mean no such thing; their language is the language of mere "lively resemblances" to some past events, and not the language of ancient predictions fulfilled: nor is there a hint given to aid us in our attempt to distinguish those that are fulfillments from the mass of those that are declared not to be. Now what is this, but to cast suspicion upon them all? Not a few of these passages point to Christ, in his Deity, his character, and his work; and we deprecate the effect of surrendering them up at the bidding of such a theory of interpretation, although advocated by men venerable and renowned. Having done so much to unsettle other minds in regard to these passages, it seems to us that Prof. Stuart was bound to give some clue by which we might distinguish the ones that may remain from those that must be swept away. He has far in this direction not to have gone farther.

gone too

ARTICLE VII.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND

INSTITUTIONS,

By H. P. TAPPAN, D.D., New York.

THE primitive idea and form of education is that of a preparation for the ordinary and necessary occasions of human life. The world was given to man as a vast store-house of materials, capable of being wrought out and adapted to his

As originally given in their rude condition, they met only his most necessary wants. But he had within himself the principle of a higher utility, leading to conceptions of convenience, comfort, elegance. The development of his nature in this direction gave birth to agriculture, the mechanical arts, manufactures, and commerce-the forms of human industry. This idea is the basis of what is strictly popular education. In its rudest state it presents merely, and in different degrees, mental invention, contrivance and adaptation, and physical skill-where instinct and spontaneous

1. Report of the Corporation of Brown University. March 28th, 1850. 2. Of a Liberal Education in General; and with particular reference to the leading studies of the University of Cambridge. By William Whewell, D.D., Master of Trinity College, and Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. London: 1845.

3. Edinburgh Review, April, 1810; June, 1831; and April, 1849. 4. Quarterly Review, June, 1840.

thought work together, and where the wonderful instrumentality of nature is perfected by use and ripened into habit. Thus we have unpolished men quick in calculation, and nice and skillful in mechanical works.

But human industry, in order to accomplish its most useful works, and to bring the physical conditions of the world to the highest perfection, calls in the aid of the loftiest sciences, both pure and physical: Mathematics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and the science of Nature, in its widest extent, are all brought in to aid and perfect human industry. The few here direct and govern the many. The people do not all become men of science, but they work by rules of a higher order which men of science have provided for them, instead of committing themselves to their own ingenuity, and to experiments more or less fortunate. But the employment of these scientific and determined rules quickens thought, excites curiosity, and leads to the knowledge of many scientific truths, and to some rational comprehension of the system of the universe, and of the power and scope of the human faculties.

Men, too, as members of the social organization, as subjects of government, as moral and religious beings, must acquire notions of social and civil law, of moral and religious duty. The cultivation of a people in this direction will depend upon the condition of their social state, the nature of the governments under which they are held, and the religious beliefs under which they have been nurtured.

We have in all the above particulars that form of education of which all men must more or less partake. It is the education of utility and necessary duty. It embraces what may be called a popular or practical system of education. Institutions which are established to promote this form are popular or practical institutions.

In nations, however, where the fine arts and literature are cultivated, the whole people feel the genial influence. Specimens of the arts in public buildings, in statuary, and in the diffusion of poetry and music. And since, wherever the art of writing appears, a knowledge of written language becomes itself a matter of the highest utility in the ordinary commerce of life, there will be an effort to make this knowledge general. But this must bring along with it the possibilities and means of some degree of literary cultivation. Among the ancients, indeed, with whom books were scarce, the people in even the most cultivated states were dependent upon orations delivered in public assemblies, upon the recitations of poets, and upon dramatic exhibitions in the theatres, and not upon reading,

for literary cultivation. But the effect of these was very great, as we see exemplified in the Athenians. Among the moderns, the immense multiplication of books and periodical publications throws the influence of ideal and æsthetical education over even the lower orders. Popular education thus unavoidably advances beyond the mere demands of utility and necessity in industrial, social, civil, and religious life.

The second form of education relates to the arts of the beautiful, or whatever refines and embellishes human life. through the influence of æsthetical tastes. The power of the arts is, indeed, felt by the whole people, but education in the arts properly belongs to a class. They are the men who are impeiled by natural genius, co-operating with circumstances which often appear accidental, to devote themselves to an ideal life. Schools of art spring up with the spontaneity of the artistic life. Solitary endeavors-bright stars shining alone amid a wide-spread darkness-at first appear. Then the first great works form inspiring calls to kindred geniuses in after times, and stand as models of perfection and taste. Thus artists are multiplied. Next enthusiastic disciples collect around the great masters, and schools of art come into being.

The third form of education relates to professional life. The three great professions of Law, Medicine, and Theology, have their origin in the deepest necessities of man. They are the professions in distinction from all others as of paramount importance.

The first stands connected with ethics and civil jurispru dence with the rights of man, the relations of individuals, communities, and nations-with social, civil, and moral order. Hence it demands a profound knowledge of moral science, of history, civil, political, and juridical.

The second is based upon multifarious observation and experiment, and involves a knowledge both of the physical and mental structure of man, and of the system of nature as containing both the causes and remedies of diseases.

The third, as developed in the Christian church, embraces a wide range of knowledge. The classical languages of Greece and Rome, together with their Hellenistic, Patristic, and Mediævel developments; the Hebrew and its cognates; History and Antiquities, sacred and profane; Metaphysics, Natural Theology and Ethics; and, since Christian doctrine has been mixed up with almost every form of philosophy, the fullest knowledge of philosophical opinion, and the history of dogmatic construction and modification, from age to age. These three professions collect as remedial powers around the cardinal interests of humanity. The first wars with wrong

and injustice, and ministers to law, government, and the natural rights of man. The second wars with disease and death, and ministers to health, to the prolongation of life, and to human happiness. The third wars with error and sin, and ministers to the moral perfection and the immortal hopes and well-being of man. And they all demand high gifts of intellect, and the noblest and profoundest accomplishments of learning. It is not surprising, therefore, that systems and institutions of education for the especial preparation of men for the learned professions should have grown up, and become paramount to all others; and that even the cardinal idea of a liberal education should have identified itself with the idea of such a preparation.

The fourth form of education is the ideal or philosophical. Here the capacities of the mind are considered, and the system of education is shaped simply for educating-leading forth-unfolding these capacities. We now leave out of view the mere utilities of life, the demands of particular arts, the preparations for a particular profession. We ask, what man is what he is capable of becoming? We find him endowed with high powers of thought, observation and reasoningwith imagination and taste-with conscience and moral determination. And in all these he is capable of growing indefinitely-of becoming more and more intellectual, more and more beautiful in his imaginative and tasteful functions, -more wise and good, without an assignable limit. And then we ask, for the laws and means of promoting and leading on this growth? And we find that all knowledge is adapted to this great end,-that in knowing and reasoning he comes to know more easily and accurately, and to reason more rapidly and surely; that in forming an acquaintance with the great works of literature and art, and in producing these works, the imagination and taste are continually unfolding and ripening; and that the liberal professions and any employments entering into the life and well-being of society, while in their objective offices they are multiplying benefits on every side, react subjectively and form the discipline by which the soul grows into every form of intellectual power and moral worth, and becomes a partaker of the Divine nature.

Philosophical or ideal education does not abstract itself from the pursuits and ends of our human life, or lose sight of any of the great interests of the social state; on the contrary, it embraces them all, and that, too, under the highest points of view. It contemplates every man as having some proper work to perform for the common weal; but that, in

order to perform it well, he requires the cultivation of all his faculties, while in the doing of his work he shall ripen more and more. It has thus two states-the preparatory and the

executive.

The preparatory is formal and scholastic, and comes under the direction of institutions of learning. Herein is comprised that education of the mental faculties in general, of which we . have spoken above. Man is a creature of reason, and therefore, his capacity of reasoning should be developed through all the forms and processes of logic in the prosecution of such studies as are judged best calculated to this end. He is a creature of language, and therefore should he be taught the full power and beauty, and the ready and apt use of language in speech and writing by the study of the most cultivated languages, as presented in their classical works, whether of poetry, oratory, history, or philosophy, and by original efforts. He is a creature of imagination and beautiful tastes, and therefore should these be drawn forth in studies of the arts, and by poetry and music. He is a creature of passions and will, and therefore should be instructed in morality, and be disciplined to self-government. He is immortal, and therefore should he learn that system of religion which brings life and immortality to light.

Under the philosophical, or ideal point of view, Education is the cultivation, the improvement of man, in respect to the capacities wherewith he is constituted; it is the nurture and development of his soul. Nor do we here forget his physical being, and neglect a training in all those manly exercises which give noble proportions, and hale vigor and strength. The ideal of a man is a true and cultivated soul dwelling in a sound and active body, prepared for all proper duties.

After a right worthy discipline of the man, by this preparatory course, we next proceed to the executive part of his education. Under this denomination we embrace professional studies, such as Law, Medicine, and Theology, or the studies relating to any course of life for which the individual may design himself. So much of these studies as are necessary to fit him for undertaking professional duty may also be pursued at literary institutions. But they require ever to be followed up and extended through life-as a workman would be ever handling his tools.

The education which we thus indicate by the philosophical or ideal is the most thorough, liberal, and extensive, and designed to make sound, disciplined, and amply-furnished men for the state and the church, and for all the arts, duties, and offices of life.