PUE-PUF 3 miles long. The harbour, about 2 miles long and from See Jülfs and Balleer, Seehäfen der Erde, Oldenburg, 1878; and PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA, probably the "Mene- PUERTO PRINCIPE, or now more correctly CIUDAD PUERTO RICO. See PORTO RICO. 99 Its and Spinoza. He belonged to an ecclesiastical family; Pufendorf was twenty-five years old when he quitted The keenly sarcastic tract De statu imperii germanici, liber unus, dates from this period of his life. Small in Written with the assent of bulk, it is great in significance, and is one of Pufendorf's most important works. the elector palatine, but published under the cover of a pseudonym at Geneva in 1667, it was supposed to be addressed by a gentleman of Verona, Severinus de Monzambano, to his brother Lælius. The pamphlet made a great sensation. Its author arraigned directly the organi insight, he shows himself as one of the precursors of J. J. Rousseau and of the Contrat social. On the subject of international law, with which he occupies himself incidentally, it is to be noted that Pufendorf belongs to the philosophical school, and also that he powerfully defends the idea that international law is not restricted to Christendom, but constitutes a common bond between all nations because all nations form part of humanity. As was to be expected, the work made a sensation: it provoked enthusiastic admiration as well as anger and indignation; the author was praised to the skies on the one hand, and accused of irreligion and atheism on the other. universities of Lund and Leipsic, above all, furnished adversaries and critics. Being passionately attacked, he defended himself with passion, and he may be held to have come victorious out of these conflicts in which his combative and sarcastic soul delighted, for Pufendorf dearly loved a fray. The zation of the holy empire and exposed its feebleness, | ception, in which he scarcely gives proof of historical denounced in no measured terms the faults of the house of Austria, and attacked with remarkable vigour the politics of the ecclesiastical princes. But he did not thus describe the evil without at the same time suggesting the remedy. Thinking that Germany could not attain to a true monarchy without a great revolution, he proposed to call together a confederation, with a perpetual council representing all the members and occupying itself with external affairs. Before Pufendorf, Philipp Bogislaw von Chemnitz, publicist and soldier, had written, under the pseudonym of "Hippolytus a Lapide," De ratione status in imperio nostro Romano-Germanico. Inimical, like Pufendorf, to the house of Austria, Chemnitz had gone so far as to make an appeal to France and Sweden. Pufendorf, on the contrary, rejected all idea of foreign intervention. But in his plan, in which national initiative was all in all, were propounded the ideas of an army supported at the general expense, the secularization of the ecclesiastical principalities, the abolition of convents, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. His little book is perhaps the most important that was produced in relation to the public law and politics of Germany, and it is noteworthy that he reveals himself as a consummate statesman, having a broad comprehension of the present and a clear insight into the future. Subsequent events proved the justice of his conclusions. In 1670 Pufendorf was called to the university of Lund. The influence of his brother Isaiah, as also some disagreements which he had had with his colleagues at Heidelberg, influenced his decision to accept the call; but by this acceptance he did not break with German culture, for in Scandinavia that culture was predominant. The sojourn at Lund was fruitful. In 1672 appeared the De jure naturæ et gentium, libri octo, and in 1675 a résumé of it under the title of De officio hominis et civis. The treatise De jure naturæ et gentium is the first systematic work on the subject. Grotius, whom Pufendorf has been accused of having too servilely followed, had more especially treated of international relations; and on the other hand Oldendorp, Hemming, and Winkler treated of the rudimentary part of the subject. Pufendorf took up in great measure the theories of Grotius and sought to complete them by means of the doctrines of Hobbes and of his own ideas. Judging of the work of Pufendorf as a whole, Mr Lorimer | has felt justified in saying that "his conception was a magnificent one, and in the effort which he made to realize it he has left behind him a work which, notwithstanding the unpardonable amount of commonplace which it contains and its consequent dulness, is entitled to the respect of all future jurists. It was nothing less than an attempt to evolve from the study of human nature a system of jurisprudence which should be of universal and permanent applicability." The author derived law from reason, from the civil law, and from divine revelation, and established thus three "disciplines "-natural law, civil law, and moral theology. Natural law is all that is commanded to us by pure reason, and hence resulted the first important point in Pufendorf's theory, viz., that natural law does not extend beyond the limits of this life and that it confines itself to regulating external acts. Pufendorf combats Hobbes's conception of the state of nature, and concludes that the state of nature is not one of war but of peace. But this peace is feeble and insecure, and if something else does not come to its aid it can do very little for the preservation of mankind. As regards public law Pufendorf, while recognizing in the state (civitas) a moral person (persona moralis), teaches that the will of the state is but the sum of the individual wills that constitute it, and that this association explains the state. In this a priori con In 1677 he was called to Stockholm in the capacity of historiographer-royal. To this new period belong among others the work On the Spiritual Monarchy of the Pope, which was afterwards inserted in his Introduction to the History of the principal States in Europe at the present Day, also the great Commentariorum de rebus Suecicis, libri XXVI., ab expeditione Gustavi Adolphi regis in Germaniam ad abdicationem usque Christina and a History of Charles Gustavus. In his historical works Pufendorf is hopelessly dry; but he professes a great respect for truth and generally draws from archives. The treatise On the Spiritual Monarchy of the Pope alone recalls Severinus de Monzambano. There we find the same vigour and the same passion, and all through its pages we feel the indignation of the Protestant who sees the noble cause of religious liberty menaced by the papacy and by its two allies Louis XIV. and James II. Of the same nature is another work of this period, De habitu religionis christianæ ad vitam civilem, in which he undertakes to trace the limits between ecclesiastical and civil power, and where he expounds for the first time completely the theory known under the name of "Kollegial System" or "Kollegialismus," which was actually applied later in Prussia. This work is dated 1687. In 1688 Pufendorf was called to the service of Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg. He accepted the call; but he had no sooner arrived than the elector died. His son Frederick III. fulfilled the promises of his father, and Pufendorf, historiographer and privy councillor, was instructed to write The History of the Elector William the Great. The king of Sweden did not on this account cease to testify his goodwill towards Pufendorf, In the same year, and in 1694 he created him a baron. on the 26th of October, Pufendorf died at Berlin and was buried in the church of St Nicholas, where an inscription to his memory is still to be seen. The value of the man whose life has been thus briefly sketched was great; he was at once philosopher, lawyer, economist, historian, we may even add statesman. His influence also was considerable, and he has left a profound impression on thought, and not on that of Germany alone. Posterity has, however, done him scant justice, and has not acknowledged what it really owes to him. Much of the responsibility for this injustice rests with Leibnitz, who would never recognize the incontestable greatness of one who was constantly his adversary. Everybody knows the bitter criticism which he made on Pufendorf, "vir parum jurisconsultus et minime philosophus.' This is only the condensed expression of a multitude of judgments passed by him on the author of the De jure naturæ et gentium. It was on the subject of the pamphlet of Severinus de Monzambano that the quarrel began. The conservative and timid Leibnitz was beaten on the battlefield of politics and public law, and the aggressive spirit of Pufendorf aggravated yet more the dispute, and so widened the division. From that time the two writers other. The combat was almost always decided in favour of Pufencould never meet on a common subject without attacking each dorf, but the irony of fate has ratified the words of his adversary, " and the future has accepted an estimate dictated by anger and PUFF-ADDER. See VIPER. genera, of which Bucco is the largest and contains 20 vol. xxxv. p. 614, and vol. xxxvi. p. 61; Bluntschli, Deutsches Staats-Wörter tacheté du Brésil," 3 PUFFIN, the common English name of a sea-bird, the Fratercula arctica of most ornithologists, known however on various parts of the British coasts as the Bottlenose, Coulterneb, Pope, Sea-Parrot, and Tammy-Norie, to say nothing of other still more local designations, some (as Marrott and Willock) shared also with allied species of Alcidæ, to which Family it has, until very lately, been invariably deemed to belong. Of old time Puffins were a valuable commodity to the owners of their breedingplaces, for the young were taken from the holes in which they were hatched, and "being exceeding fat," as Carew wrote in 1602 (Survey of Cornwall, fol. 35), were "kept salted, and reputed for fish, as coming neerest thereto in their taste." In 1345, according to a document from which an extract is given in Heath's Islands of Scilly (p. 190), those islands were held of the crown at a yearly rent of 300 Puffins or 6s. 8d., being one-sixth of their estimated annual value. A few years later (1484), either through the birds having grown scarcer or money cheaper, only 50 Puffins are said (op. cit., p. 196) to have been demanded. It is stated by both Gesner and Caius that they were allowed to be eaten in Lent. Ligon, who in 1673 published a History of the Island of Barbadoes, speaks (p. 37) of the ill taste of Puffins "which we have from the isles of Scilly," and adds "this kind of food is only for servants." only for servants." Puffins used to resort in vast numbers to certain stations on the coast, and are still plentiful on some, reaching them in spring with remarkable punctuality on a certain day, which naturally varies with the locality, and after passing the summer there, leaving their homes with similar precision. They differ from most other Alcida in laying their single egg (which is white with a few grey markings when first produced, but speedily begrimed by the soil) in a shallow burrow, which they either dig for themselves or appropriate from a rabbit, for on most of their haunts rabbits have been introduced. Their plumage is of a glossy black above-the cheeks grey, encircled by a black band-and pure white beneath; their feet are of a bright reddish orange, but the most remarkable feature of these birds, and one that gives them a very comical expression, is their huge bill. This is very deep and laterally flattened, so as indeed to resemble a coulter, as one of the bird's common names expresses; but moreover it is particoloured-blue, yellow, and red-curiously grooved and still more curiously embossed in places, that is to say during the breeding-season, when the birds are most frequently seen. But it had long been known to some observers that such Puffins as occasionally occur in winter (most often washed up on the shore and dead) presented a beak very different in shape and size, and to account for the difference was a standing puzzle. Many years ago Bingley (North Wales, i. p. 354) stated that Puffins " are said to change their bills annually." The remark seems Mr Sclater in his Monograph divides the Family into 7 A Monograph of the Jacamars and Puff-birds, or Families Gal- 3 There can not be much doubt that the name Puffin given to these young birds, salted and dried, was applied on account of their downy clothing, for an English informant of Gesner's described one to him (Hist. Avium, p. 110) as wanting true feathers, and being covered only with a sort of woolly black plumage. It is right, however, to state that Caius expressly declares (Rarior, animal. libellus, fol. 21) that the name is derived "a naturali voce pupin." Prof. Skeat states that the word is a diminutive, which favours the view that it was originally used as a name for these young birds. The parents were probably known by one or other of their many local appellations. orders of the duke of Beaufort was destroyed by fire, and Puget, disheartened, took leave of Toulon. In 1685 he went back to Marseilles, where he continued the long series of works of sculpture on which he had been employed by Colbert. His statue of Milo (Louvre) had been completed in 1681, Perseus and Andromeda (Louvre) in 1683, and Alexander and Diogenes (bas-relief, Louvre) in 1685; but, in spite of the personal favour which he enjoyed, Puget, on coming to Paris in 1688 to push forward the execu tion of an equestrian statue of Louis XIV., found court intrigues too much for him. He was forced to abandon his project and retire to Marseilles, where he remained till his death in 1694. His last work, a bas-relief of the to have been generally overlooked; but it has proved to be very near the truth, for after investigations carefully pursued during some years by Dr Bureau of Nantes he was in 1877 enabled to shew (Bull. Soc. Zool. France, ii. pp. 377-399) that the Puffin's bill undergoes what may be called an annual moult, some of its most remarkable appendages, as well as certain horny outgrowths above and beneath the eyes, dropping off at the end of the breedingseason, and being reproduced the following year. Not long after the same naturalist announced (op. cit., iv. pp. 1-68) that he had followed the similar changes which he found to take place, not only in other species of Puffins, as the Fratercula corniculata and F. cirrhata of the Northern Pacific, but in several birds of the kindred genera Cera-Plague of Milan, which remained unfinished, was placed torhina and Simorhynchus inhabiting the same waters, and consequently proposed to regard all of them as forming a Family distinct from the Alcida- a view which has since found favour with Dr Dybowski (op. cit., vii. pp. 270-300 and viii. pp. 348-350), though there is apparently insufficient reason for accepting it. The name Puffin has also been given in books to one of the Shearwaters, and its Latinized form Puffinus is still used in that sense in scientific nomenclature. This fact seems to have arisen from a mistake of Ray's, who, seeing in Tradescant's Museum and that of the Royal Society some young Shearwaters from the Isle of Man, prepared in like manner to young Puffins, thought they were the birds mentioned by Gesner (loc. cit.), as the remarks inserted in Willughby's Ornithologia (p. 251) prove; for the specimens described by Ray were as clearly Shearwaters as Gesner's were Puffins. (A. N.) PUGET, PIERRE (1622-1694), born at Marseilles on 31st October 1622, painter, sculptor, architect, and engineer, is a rare instance of precocious genius and mature power. At the age of fourteen he carved the ornaments of the galleys built in the port of his native city, and at sixteen the decoration and construction of a ship were entrusted to him. Soon after he went to Italy on foot, and was well received at Rome by Pietro di Cortona, who employed him on the ceilings of the Barberini palace and on those of the Pitti at Florence. In 1643 he returned to Marseilles, where he painted portraits and carved the colossal figure-heads of men-of-war. After a second journey to Italy he painted also a great number of pictures for Aix, Toulon, Cuers, and La Ciotat, and sculptured a large marble group of the Virgin and Child for the church of Lorgues. A serious illness in 1665 brought Puget a prohibition from the doctors which caused him wholly to put aside the brush. He now sculptured the caryatides of the town-hall of Toulon (Louvre), went to Normandy, where he executed a statue of Hercules and a group of Janus and Cybele for the marquis of Vaudreuil, and visiting Paris made the acquaintance of Le Pautre and Fouquet, who determined to employ him at Vaux and sent him to Italy to choose marbles for his work. The fall of Fouquet found Puget at Genoa, where he remained erployed by the nobles of the town. There he executed for Sublet des Noyers his French Hercules (Louvre), the statues of St Sebastian and of Alexandre Sauli in the church of Carignano, and much other work. The Doria family gave him a church to build; the senate proposed But Colbert that he should paint their council-chamber. bade Puget return to France, and in 1669 he again took up his old work in the dockyards of Toulon. The arsenal which he had there undertaken to construct under the 1 A translated abstract of this paper-containing an account of what is perhaps the most interesting discovery of the kind made in ornithology for many years-is given in the Zoologist for 1878 (pp. 233-240) and another in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club for the same year (iii. pp. 87-91). in the council-chamber of the town-hall. Puget was the most vigorous representative of French sculpture in the 18th century; in spite of his visits to Paris and Rome his work never lost its local character: his Hercules is fresh from the galleys of Toulon; his saints and virgins are men and women who speak Provençal. His best work, the St Sebastian at Genoa, though a little heavy in parts, shows admirable energy and life, as well as great skill in contrasting the decorative accessories with the simple surface of the nude. Cicognara, Storia della scultura; Lenoir, Musée des Mon. Français; Lagrange, Vie de Pierre Puget; Barbet de Jouy, Sculptures mod. au Louvre. PUGIN, AUGUSTUS WELBY NORTHMORE (1812-1852), architect, was the son of Augustus Pugin, a native of France, who practised as an architect in London. He was born in Store Street, Bedford Square, on 1st March 1812. After completing the ordinary course of education at Christ's Hospital (blue-coat school), he entered his father's office, where he displayed a remarkable talent for drawing. When he had mastered the elements of his profession he devoted a large portion of his time to the sketching of public buildings; he also accompanied his father on several While still very young he professional tours in France. was employed by his father to design furniture in the medieval style for Windsor Castle, and in 1831 he designed the scenery for the new opera of Kenilworth at Her Majesty's Theatre. Shortly afterwards he involved himself deeply in money difficulties by an attempt to establish a manufactory of stained glass, metal work, and furniture at Hart Street, Covent Garden. From the time, however, that he devoted himself steadily to his profession as an architect he never failed to find full employment. Shortly after his secession from the Church of England to that of Rome he published Contrasts; or a Parallel between the Architecture of the 15th and 19th Centuries (1836), in which he severely criticized the architecture of Protestantism. His other principal works are True Principles of Christian Architecture (1841), a Glossary of Ecclesiastical_Ornament (1844), and a Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts (1851). Pugin was the designer of a large number of important Roman Catholic buildings, and also assisted Sir Charles Barry in the preparation of the designs for the new Houses of Parliament, Westminster. Early in 1852 he was attacked by insanity, which caused his death on 14th September of the same year. Future historians who may write the architectural history of the 19th century will probably describe as its leading characteristic that enthusiastic revival of the Gothic style which took place in the second quarter of the century and continued with unabated vigour for more than thirty years. Among the many able archi tects who during this period contributed to cover England with churches and other buildings, designed in a style which for three centuries had been rejected as barbarous, the name of Pugin deserves to be the most conspicuous. No man so thoroughly mastered the true principles of the Gothic style in its various stages, both in its leading lines and in the minutest details of its mouldings and carved enrichments, and that too at a time when illustrated works on Gothic architecture, such as have since been produced in enormous quantities, had scarcely begun to exist; thus young Pugin had 2 These numerous illustrated works, with every detail shown to a workable scale, by doing away with the necessity for studying the quence, antiquarian knowledge, and even brilliant humour. This last gift is exemplified in a series of etched plates in his Contrasts : on one side is some noble structure of the Middle Ages, and on the other an example of the same building as erected in the 19th century. His works on Chancel Screens and on The True Principles of Christian Architecture are very ably written and exquisitely illustrated. Pugin's melancholy and premature end was to a great extent caused by the embittering influence of the constant frustration of his noblest artistic struggles and conceptions. See Ben. Ferrey, Recollections of A. Welby Pugin and his Father, London, 1861. PULCI, LUIGI, Italian poet, was born at Florence on 3d December 1431 and died in 1487. The first edition of his Morgante Maggiore appeared at Venice in 1481. (See ITALY, vol. xiii. p. 507 sq.) to learn the alphabet of his chosen style by careful and laborious PULGAR, FERNANDO DE, Spanish prose-writer of the latter part of the 15th century, born probably at Pulgar near Toledo, was brought up at the court of John II. Henry IV. made him one of his secretaries, and under Isabella he became a councillor of state, was charged with at least one mission to France, and in 1482 was appointed historiographer-royal. His official Chronicle of the reign of the Catholic sovereigns for the period previous to his appointment is loose and inaccurate; but in the later portion, where he had the advantage of personal knowledge, he is always precise and often graphic. It is not brought down beyond the year 1492. It was first printed at Valladolid in 1565 under the name of Antonio de Lebrija. Pulgar's Claros Varones de Castilla, a series of sketches of forty-six of the most celebrated men of the reign and court of Henry IV., is of considerable interest both for its matter and for its style. He wrote, besides, a commentary on the ancient Coplas de Mingo Revulgo; and thirty-two of his Letters written to various persons of eminence, including some to the queen, are also extant. The first edition of the Claros Varones was that of Seville (1500); some of the letters did not appear until 1528. PULKOWA. See OBSERVATORY, vol. xvii. p. 714. PULLEY. See MECHANICS and BLOCK MACHINERY. PULTENEY, WILLIAM, EARL OF BATH (1684-1764), a politician elevated by a living historian 5 into the important position in history of the first leader of the opposition, was descended from an ancient family with a pedigree duly recorded in Nichols's History of Leicestershire (iv. 320). His father, William Pulteney, died in 1715, and the future statesman was the offspring of his first wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in 1684. As his grandfather had been intimately connected with the city of Westminster, the boy was sent to Westminster school and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, acquiring in these institutions that deep classical knowledge which adorned his own speeches and enabled him to correct his great antagonist when he blunOn leaving Oxford he made the dered in a quotation. usual tour on the Continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by Henry Guy for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at the death of that gentleman (a politician who had at one time held the office of secretary of the treasury) Pulteney inherited an estate of £500 a year and £40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734, and though the family was then dispossessed for a time the supremacy was regained in the return of another Pulteney in 1739. Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend He was a skilful etcher and produced a number of works illustrated in this way by his own hand, and written with much elobuildings themselves, and being used simply like "cribs" to an unknown language, are partly accountable for numberless recent buildings, which, while they are Gothic in form, are utterly devoid of the refinement, fitness, and true taste displayed in the buildings of the Middle Ages. Three volumes of photographs of these sketches have been pub. lished in a square octavo form, but have suffered from reduction in size. A comparison of the decorations of the Houses of Parliament with other contemporary and even later Gothic buildings shows in a very striking way the remarkable talent and industry displayed by Pugin in the work. A few years ago very ill-judged attempts were made to claim for Pagin the main credit of Barry's design-claims which he himself would have been the last to raise. Pugin's sense of humour was keener than is altogether convenient for a man of business; on one occasion when a certain Catholic bishop wrote asking him to design a handsome church, which was to cost an absurdly small sum of money, he replied, "My lord, say thirty shillings more and have a tower and spire." * Justin M'Carthy, History of the Four Georges, vol. i. (1884). |