PUE-PUF

3 miles long. The harbour, about 2 miles long and from
one-fourth of a mile to a mile in breadth, is formed by a
narrow spit of land or coral ledge running out for about 2
miles from the coast in a northerly and westerly direction.
The entrance, about 90 feet deep, is so clear that no pilot
is required; and in the outer bay (100 to 300 feet deep)
there is safe anchorage. On a high rock to the south-
east of the town is the Mirador of Solano, or castle of
Puerto Cabello, which has often proved an obstacle to
enemies advancing from the interior. In 1883 the muni-
cipality, with a population of 12,000, contained a tannery,
a foundry and machine-shop, a coffee-mill, two soap and
candle factories, and about fourteen wholesale warehouses.
The exports consist of coffee, cocoa, hides, goat and deer
skins, bark, woods, indigo, and cotton, but only the first
in large quantities. Germany and the United States are
the chief recipients. Within 6 miles of the town there are
four villages of from 200 to 1500 inhabitants.

See Jülfs and Balleer, Seehäfen der Erde, Oldenburg, 1878; and
U.S. Consular Reports, Nos, 24, 26, 30, &c.

PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA, probably the "Mene-
sthei Portus" of Ptolemy, commonly called EL PUERTO
("The Port"), a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz,
7 miles to the north-east of that city (21 miles by rail;
see sketch map, vol. iv. p. 627), near the mouth and on
the right bank of the Guadalete, which is here crossed by
a suspension bridge. It is a pleasant and well-built though
somewhat dull town, in a fertile country, and its houses
resemble those of Cadiz, though they are often larger
and profusely decorated with painting. Calle Larga, the
principal street, is handsome and well-paved; there are
several "alamedas" or public promenades, that of La
Victoria being the finest. The place is famous for its
bull-fights, that given here in honour of Wellington being
the subject of the considerably idealized description in
Byron's Childe Harold. Among the public buildings is
Puerto is
a large Jesuit college, recently established.
chiefly important as a wine-exporting place; the "bodegas"
or wine-stores are large and lofty, but hardly equal to
those of Xerez. The harbour is formed by the river; its
There is
mouth is considerably obstructed by a bar.
regular steam communication with Cadiz. Timber and
iron are the chief imports. The population of the munici-
pality in December 1877 was 22,125.

PUERTO PRINCIPE, or now more correctly CIUDAD
DEL PRINCIPE, a city at the head of the central department
of the island of Cuba. When first founded in the begin-
ning of the 16th century by Velazquez, it was, as its more
familiar name implies, on the sea-coast; but it has been
more than once shifted southward and inland, and is now
nearly as far from the north as from the south side of the
island. Though for some time after the surrender of San
Domingo to France in 1800 Principe was the seat of the
central government and supreme courts of the Spanish
West Indies, it is no longer a place of much importance.
The population is estimated at 31,000. Since 1840 the
city has been connected by a railway with its port, which
is sometimes called by its own name and sometimes by
that of a smaller town on the bay about 11 miles from its
entrance, San Fernando de Nuevitas. The harbour or bay
is large, completely sheltered, and capable of admitting
vessels of the largest draught; but it is entered by a
narrow crooked passage 6 miles long, which, though there
are no hidden dangers, makes the assistance of a pilot
desirable.

PUERTO RICO. See PORTO RICO.
PUFENDORF, SAMUEL (1632-1694), was born at
Chemnitz, Saxony, on the 8th of January 1632, the same
year which also saw the birth of three other illustrious
political and philosophical writers-Locke, Cumberland,

99

Its

and Spinoza. He belonged to an ecclesiastical family;
his father was a Lutheran pastor, and he himself was
destined for the ministry. Having completed his pre-
liminary studies at the celebrated school of Grimma, he
was sent to study theology at the university of Leipsic,
at that time the citadel of Lutheran orthodoxy.
narrow and dogmatic teaching was profoundly repugnant
to the liberal nature of the young student, who was not
long in bidding adieu to the professors of theology and
throwing himself passionately into the study of public law.
He soon went so far as to quit Leipsic altogether, and
betook himself to Jena, where he formed an intimate
friendship with Erhard Weigel the mathematician, a man
of great distinction. Weigel was imbued with the Cartesian
philosophy; and it was to his teaching and to the impetus
he gave to the application of the mathematical method
that Pufendorf owes the exact and ordered mind, and the
precision, frequently approaching almost to dryness, which
characterize his writings. It was also under Weigel's in-
fluence that he developed that independence of character
which never bent before other writers, however high
their position, and which showed itself in his profound
disdain for "ipsedixitism," to use the piquant phrase of
Bentham.

Pufendorf was twenty-five years old when he quitted
Jena. He hoped to find a career in some of the adminis-
trative offices which were so frequently the refuge of the
learned in the small states of ancient Germany; but in this
he was unsuccessful. In 1658, thanks to his eldest brother
Isaiah, who had given up university teaching to enter the
Swedish service, he went, in the capacity of tutor, into
the family of Petrus Julius Coyet, one of the resident
ministers of Charles Gustavus, king of Sweden, at Copen-
hagen. At this time Charles Gustavus was endeavouring
to impose upon Denmark a burdensome alliance, and in the
middle of the negotiations he brutally opened hostilities.
The anger of the Danes was turned against the envoys
of the Swedish sovereign; Coyet, it is true, succeeded in
escaping, but the second minister, Steno Bjelke, and the
whole suite were arrested and thrown into prison. Pufen-
dorf shared this misfortune, and the future successor of
Grotius was subjected to a strict captivity of eight months'
duration. Like Grotius, he too had his Loevestein. The
young tutor, deprived of books, occupied himself during
He mentally constructed
his captivity in meditating upon what he had read in the
works of Grotius and Hobbes.
a system of universal law; and, when, at the end of his
captivity, he accompanied his pupils, the sons of Coyet,
to the university of Leyden, he was enabled to publish
the fruits of his reflexions under the title of Elementa
jurisprudentiæ universalis, libri duo. The work was de-
dicated to Charles Louis, elector palatine, an enlightened
prince and patron of science, who offered Pufendorf a
chair of Roman law at Heidelberg, and when this was
declined he created a new chair, that of the law of nature
and nations, the first of the kind in the world. Pufen-
dorf accepted it, and was thus in 1661, at the age of
twenty-nine, placed in the most enviable of positions. He
showed himself equal to his task, and by his science and
eloquence proved himself to be an honour and an orna-
ment to the university.

The keenly sarcastic tract De statu imperii germanici, liber unus, dates from this period of his life. Small in Written with the assent of bulk, it is great in significance, and is one of Pufendorf's most important works.

the elector palatine, but published under the cover of a pseudonym at Geneva in 1667, it was supposed to be addressed by a gentleman of Verona, Severinus de Monzambano, to his brother Lælius. The pamphlet made a great sensation. Its author arraigned directly the organi

insight, he shows himself as one of the precursors of J. J. Rousseau and of the Contrat social. On the subject of international law, with which he occupies himself incidentally, it is to be noted that Pufendorf belongs to the philosophical school, and also that he powerfully defends the idea that international law is not restricted to Christendom, but constitutes a common bond between all nations because all nations form part of humanity. As was to be expected, the work made a sensation: it provoked enthusiastic admiration as well as anger and indignation; the author was praised to the skies on the one hand, and accused of irreligion and atheism on the other. universities of Lund and Leipsic, above all, furnished adversaries and critics. Being passionately attacked, he defended himself with passion, and he may be held to have come victorious out of these conflicts in which his combative and sarcastic soul delighted, for Pufendorf dearly loved a fray.

The

zation of the holy empire and exposed its feebleness, | ception, in which he scarcely gives proof of historical denounced in no measured terms the faults of the house of Austria, and attacked with remarkable vigour the politics of the ecclesiastical princes. But he did not thus describe the evil without at the same time suggesting the remedy. Thinking that Germany could not attain to a true monarchy without a great revolution, he proposed to call together a confederation, with a perpetual council representing all the members and occupying itself with external affairs. Before Pufendorf, Philipp Bogislaw von Chemnitz, publicist and soldier, had written, under the pseudonym of "Hippolytus a Lapide," De ratione status in imperio nostro Romano-Germanico. Inimical, like Pufendorf, to the house of Austria, Chemnitz had gone so far as to make an appeal to France and Sweden. Pufendorf, on the contrary, rejected all idea of foreign intervention. But in his plan, in which national initiative was all in all, were propounded the ideas of an army supported at the general expense, the secularization of the ecclesiastical principalities, the abolition of convents, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. His little book is perhaps the most important that was produced in relation to the public law and politics of Germany, and it is noteworthy that he reveals himself as a consummate statesman, having a broad comprehension of the present and a clear insight into the future. Subsequent events proved the justice of his conclusions.

In 1670 Pufendorf was called to the university of Lund. The influence of his brother Isaiah, as also some disagreements which he had had with his colleagues at Heidelberg, influenced his decision to accept the call; but by this acceptance he did not break with German culture, for in Scandinavia that culture was predominant. The sojourn at Lund was fruitful. In 1672 appeared the De jure naturæ et gentium, libri octo, and in 1675 a résumé of it under the title of De officio hominis et civis. The treatise De jure naturæ et gentium is the first systematic work on the subject. Grotius, whom Pufendorf has been accused of having too servilely followed, had more especially treated of international relations; and on the other hand Oldendorp, Hemming, and Winkler treated of the rudimentary part of the subject. Pufendorf took up in great measure the theories of Grotius and sought to complete them by means of the doctrines of Hobbes and of his own ideas. Judging of the work of Pufendorf as a whole, Mr Lorimer | has felt justified in saying that "his conception was a magnificent one, and in the effort which he made to realize it he has left behind him a work which, notwithstanding the unpardonable amount of commonplace which it contains and its consequent dulness, is entitled to the respect of all future jurists. It was nothing less than an attempt to evolve from the study of human nature a system of jurisprudence which should be of universal and permanent applicability." The author derived law from reason, from the civil law, and from divine revelation, and established thus three "disciplines "-natural law, civil law, and moral theology. Natural law is all that is commanded to us by pure reason, and hence resulted the first important point in Pufendorf's theory, viz., that natural law does not extend beyond the limits of this life and that it confines itself to regulating external acts. Pufendorf combats Hobbes's conception of the state of nature, and concludes that the state of nature is not one of war but of peace. But this peace is feeble and insecure, and if something else does not come to its aid it can do very little for the preservation of mankind. As regards public law Pufendorf, while recognizing in the state (civitas) a moral person (persona moralis), teaches that the will of the state is but the sum of the individual wills that constitute it, and that this association explains the state. In this a priori con

In 1677 he was called to Stockholm in the capacity of historiographer-royal. To this new period belong among others the work On the Spiritual Monarchy of the Pope, which was afterwards inserted in his Introduction to the History of the principal States in Europe at the present Day, also the great Commentariorum de rebus Suecicis, libri XXVI., ab expeditione Gustavi Adolphi regis in Germaniam ad abdicationem usque Christina and a History of Charles Gustavus. In his historical works Pufendorf is hopelessly dry; but he professes a great respect for truth and generally draws from archives. The treatise On the Spiritual Monarchy of the Pope alone recalls Severinus de Monzambano. There we find the same vigour and the same passion, and all through its pages we feel the indignation of the Protestant who sees the noble cause of religious liberty menaced by the papacy and by its two allies Louis XIV. and James II. Of the same nature is another work of this period, De habitu religionis christianæ ad vitam civilem, in which he undertakes to trace the limits between ecclesiastical and civil power, and where he expounds for the first time completely the theory known under the name of "Kollegial System" or "Kollegialismus," which was actually applied later in Prussia. This work is dated 1687. In 1688 Pufendorf was called to the service of Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg. He accepted the call; but he had no sooner arrived than the elector died. His son Frederick III. fulfilled the promises of his father, and Pufendorf, historiographer and privy councillor, was instructed to write The History of the Elector William the Great. The king of Sweden did not on this account cease to testify his goodwill towards Pufendorf, In the same year, and in 1694 he created him a baron. on the 26th of October, Pufendorf died at Berlin and was buried in the church of St Nicholas, where an inscription to his memory is still to be seen.

The value of the man whose life has been thus briefly sketched was great; he was at once philosopher, lawyer, economist, historian, we may even add statesman. His influence also was considerable, and he has left a profound impression on thought, and not on that of Germany alone. Posterity has, however, done him scant justice, and has not acknowledged what it really owes to him. Much of the responsibility for this injustice rests with Leibnitz, who would never recognize the incontestable greatness of one who was constantly his adversary. Everybody knows the bitter criticism which he made on Pufendorf, "vir parum jurisconsultus et minime philosophus.' This is only the condensed expression of a multitude of judgments passed by him on the author of the De jure naturæ et gentium. It was on the subject of the pamphlet of Severinus de Monzambano that the quarrel began. The conservative and timid Leibnitz was beaten on the battlefield of politics and public law, and the aggressive spirit of Pufendorf aggravated yet more the dispute, and so widened the division. From that time the two writers other. The combat was almost always decided in favour of Pufencould never meet on a common subject without attacking each dorf, but the irony of fate has ratified the words of his adversary,

"

and the future has accepted an estimate dictated by anger and
spite.
See H. von Treitschke, "Samuel von Pufendorf," Preussische Jahrbücher, 1875,

PUFF-ADDER. See VIPER.

genera, of which Bucco is the largest and contains 20
species. The others are Malacoptila and Monacha each
with 7, Nonnula with 5, Chelidoptera with 2, and Micro-
monacha and Hapaloptila with 1 species each. The
most showy Puff-birds are those of the genus Monacha
with an inky-black plumage, usually diversified by white
about the head, and a red or yellow bill. The rest call
for no particular remark.
(A. N.)

vol. xxxv. p. 614, and vol. xxxvi. p. 61; Bluntschli, Deutsches Staats-Wörter
buch, vol. viii. p. 424, and Geschichte des allgemeinen Statsrechts und der Politik,
p. 108; Lorimer, The Institutes of the Law of Nations, vol. i. p. 74; Droysen,
Zur Kritik Pufendorf's," in his Abhandlungen zur neueren Geschichte;
Roscher, Geschichte der National-Oekonomik in Deutschland, p. 304; Franklin,
Das deutsche Reich nach Severinus von Monzambano.
(E. N.)
PUFF-BIRD, the name first given, according to Swain-
son (Zool. Illustrations, ser. 1, ii., text to pl. 99), by
English residents in Brazil to a group of Birds known to
ornithologists as forming the restricted Family Bucconida,
but for a long time confounded, under the general name
of Barbets, with the Capitonida of modern systematists,
who regard the two Families as differing very considerably
from one another. Some authors have used the generic
name Capito in a sense precisely opposite to that which is
now usually accorded to it, and the natural result has been
to produce one of the most complex of the many nomen-
clatural puzzles that beset Ornithology. Fortunately there
is no need here to enter upon this matter, for each group
has formed the subject of an elaborate work-the Capi-
tonida being treated by the Messrs Marshall,1 and the
Bucconida by Mr Sclater2-in each of which volumes the
origin of the confusion has been explained, and to either of
them the more curious reader may be confidently referred.
The Bucconidae are zygodactylous Birds belonging to the
large heterogeneous assemblage in the present work gener-
ally looked upon as forming the "Order" Picaria (see
ORNITHOLOGY, vol. xviii. p. 41), and commonly considered
nowadays to be most nearly allied to the Galbulida
(JACAMAR, vol. xiii. p. 531), and like them confined to the
Neotropical Region, in the middle parts of which, and
especially in its Sub-Andean Sub-region, the Puff-birds
are, as regards species, abundant; while only two seem to
reach Guatemala and but one Paraguay. As with most
South-American Birds, the habits and natural history of the
Bucconida have been but little studied, and of only one
species, which happens to belong to a rather abnormal
genus, has the nidification been described. This is the
Chelidoptera tenebrosa, which is said to breed in holes in
banks, and to lay white eggs much like those of the King-
fisher and consequently those of the Jacamars. From his
own observation Swainson writes (loc. cit.) that Puff-birds
are very grotesque in appearance. They will sit nearly
motionless for hours on the dead bough of a tree, and while
so sitting "the disproportionate size of the head is rendered
more conspicuous by the bird raising its feathers so as to
appear not unlike a puff ball. When frightened their
form is suddenly changed by the feathers lying quite flat."
They are very confiding birds and will often station them-
selves a few yards only from a window. The Bucconida
almost without exception are very plainly-coloured, and
the majority have a spotted or mottled plumage suggestive
of immaturity. The first Puff-bird known to Europeans
seems to have been that described by Marcgrave under
the name of "Tamatia," by which it is said to have been
called in Brazil, and there is good reason to think that his
description and figure-the last, comic as it is in outline
and expression, having been copied by Willughby and
many of the older authors-apply to the Bucco maculatus
of modern Ornithology-a bird placed by Brisson (Orni-
thologie, iv. p. 524) among the Kingfishers. But if so,
Marcgrave described and figured the same species twice,
since his "Matuitui" is also Brisson's "Martin-pescheur

tacheté du Brésil,"

3

PUFFIN, the common English name of a sea-bird, the Fratercula arctica of most ornithologists, known however on various parts of the British coasts as the Bottlenose, Coulterneb, Pope, Sea-Parrot, and Tammy-Norie, to say nothing of other still more local designations, some (as Marrott and Willock) shared also with allied species of Alcidæ, to which Family it has, until very lately, been invariably deemed to belong. Of old time Puffins were a valuable commodity to the owners of their breedingplaces, for the young were taken from the holes in which they were hatched, and "being exceeding fat," as Carew wrote in 1602 (Survey of Cornwall, fol. 35), were "kept salted, and reputed for fish, as coming neerest thereto in their taste." In 1345, according to a document from which an extract is given in Heath's Islands of Scilly (p. 190), those islands were held of the crown at a yearly rent of 300 Puffins or 6s. 8d., being one-sixth of their estimated annual value. A few years later (1484), either through the birds having grown scarcer or money cheaper, only 50 Puffins are said (op. cit., p. 196) to have been demanded. It is stated by both Gesner and Caius that they were allowed to be eaten in Lent. Ligon, who in 1673 published a History of the Island of Barbadoes, speaks (p. 37) of the ill taste of Puffins "which we have from the isles of Scilly," and adds "this kind of food is only for servants." only for servants." Puffins used to resort in vast numbers to certain stations on the coast, and are still plentiful on some, reaching them in spring with remarkable punctuality on a certain day, which naturally varies with the locality, and after passing the summer there, leaving their homes with similar precision. They differ from most other Alcida in laying their single egg (which is white with a few grey markings when first produced, but speedily begrimed by the soil) in a shallow burrow, which they either dig for themselves or appropriate from a rabbit, for on most of their haunts rabbits have been introduced. Their plumage is of a glossy black above-the cheeks grey, encircled by a black band-and pure white beneath; their feet are of a bright reddish orange, but the most remarkable feature of these birds, and one that gives them a very comical expression, is their huge bill. This is very deep and laterally flattened, so as indeed to resemble a coulter, as one of the bird's common names expresses; but moreover it is particoloured-blue, yellow, and red-curiously grooved and still more curiously embossed in places, that is to say during the breeding-season, when the birds are most frequently seen. But it had long been known to some observers that such Puffins as occasionally occur in winter (most often washed up on the shore and dead) presented a beak very different in shape and size, and to account for the difference was a standing puzzle. Many years ago Bingley (North Wales, i. p. 354) stated that Puffins " are said to change their bills annually." The remark seems

Mr Sclater in his Monograph divides the Family into 7
A Monograph of the Capitonide or Scansorial Barbets, by C. H.
T. and G. F. L. Marshall, London, 1870-71, 4to.

A Monograph of the Jacamars and Puff-birds, or Families Gal-
bulide and Bucconidæ, by P. L. Sclater, London, 1879-82, 4to.

3 There can not be much doubt that the name Puffin given to these

young birds, salted and dried, was applied on account of their downy clothing, for an English informant of Gesner's described one to him (Hist. Avium, p. 110) as wanting true feathers, and being covered only with a sort of woolly black plumage. It is right, however, to state that Caius expressly declares (Rarior, animal. libellus, fol. 21) that the name is derived "a naturali voce pupin." Prof. Skeat states that the word is a diminutive, which favours the view that it was originally used as a name for these young birds. The parents were probably known by one or other of their many local appellations.

orders of the duke of Beaufort was destroyed by fire, and Puget, disheartened, took leave of Toulon. In 1685 he went back to Marseilles, where he continued the long series of works of sculpture on which he had been employed by Colbert. His statue of Milo (Louvre) had been completed in 1681, Perseus and Andromeda (Louvre) in 1683, and Alexander and Diogenes (bas-relief, Louvre) in 1685; but, in spite of the personal favour which he enjoyed, Puget, on coming to Paris in 1688 to push forward the execu tion of an equestrian statue of Louis XIV., found court intrigues too much for him. He was forced to abandon his project and retire to Marseilles, where he remained till his death in 1694. His last work, a bas-relief of the

to have been generally overlooked; but it has proved to be very near the truth, for after investigations carefully pursued during some years by Dr Bureau of Nantes he was in 1877 enabled to shew (Bull. Soc. Zool. France, ii. pp. 377-399) that the Puffin's bill undergoes what may be called an annual moult, some of its most remarkable appendages, as well as certain horny outgrowths above and beneath the eyes, dropping off at the end of the breedingseason, and being reproduced the following year. Not long after the same naturalist announced (op. cit., iv. pp. 1-68) that he had followed the similar changes which he found to take place, not only in other species of Puffins, as the Fratercula corniculata and F. cirrhata of the Northern Pacific, but in several birds of the kindred genera Cera-Plague of Milan, which remained unfinished, was placed torhina and Simorhynchus inhabiting the same waters, and consequently proposed to regard all of them as forming a Family distinct from the Alcida- a view which has since found favour with Dr Dybowski (op. cit., vii. pp. 270-300 and viii. pp. 348-350), though there is apparently insufficient reason for accepting it.

The name Puffin has also been given in books to one of the Shearwaters, and its Latinized form Puffinus is still used in that sense in scientific nomenclature. This fact seems to have arisen from a mistake of Ray's, who, seeing in Tradescant's Museum and that of the Royal Society some young Shearwaters from the Isle of Man, prepared in like manner to young Puffins, thought they were the birds mentioned by Gesner (loc. cit.), as the remarks inserted in Willughby's Ornithologia (p. 251) prove; for the specimens described by Ray were as clearly Shearwaters as Gesner's were Puffins. (A. N.) PUGET, PIERRE (1622-1694), born at Marseilles on 31st October 1622, painter, sculptor, architect, and engineer, is a rare instance of precocious genius and mature power. At the age of fourteen he carved the ornaments of the galleys built in the port of his native city, and at sixteen the decoration and construction of a ship were entrusted to him. Soon after he went to Italy on foot, and was well received at Rome by Pietro di Cortona, who employed him on the ceilings of the Barberini palace and on those of the Pitti at Florence. In 1643 he returned to Marseilles, where he painted portraits and carved the colossal figure-heads of men-of-war. After a second journey to Italy he painted also a great number of pictures for Aix, Toulon, Cuers, and La Ciotat, and sculptured a large marble group of the Virgin and Child for the church of Lorgues. A serious illness in 1665 brought Puget a prohibition from the doctors which caused him wholly to put aside the brush. He now sculptured the caryatides of the town-hall of Toulon (Louvre), went to Normandy, where he executed a statue of Hercules and a group of Janus and Cybele for the marquis of Vaudreuil, and visiting Paris made the acquaintance of Le Pautre and Fouquet, who determined to employ him at Vaux and sent him to Italy to choose marbles for his work. The fall of Fouquet found Puget at Genoa, where he remained erployed by the nobles of the town. There he executed for Sublet des Noyers his French Hercules (Louvre), the statues of St Sebastian and of Alexandre Sauli in the church of Carignano, and much other work. The Doria family gave him a church to build; the senate proposed But Colbert that he should paint their council-chamber. bade Puget return to France, and in 1669 he again took up his old work in the dockyards of Toulon. The arsenal which he had there undertaken to construct under the

1 A translated abstract of this paper-containing an account of what is perhaps the most interesting discovery of the kind made in ornithology for many years-is given in the Zoologist for 1878 (pp. 233-240) and another in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club for the same year (iii. pp. 87-91).

in the council-chamber of the town-hall.

Puget was the most vigorous representative of French sculpture in the 18th century; in spite of his visits to Paris and Rome his work never lost its local character: his Hercules is fresh from the galleys of Toulon; his saints and virgins are men and women who speak Provençal. His best work, the St Sebastian at Genoa, though a little heavy in parts, shows admirable energy and life, as well as great skill in contrasting the decorative accessories with the simple surface of the nude.

Cicognara, Storia della scultura; Lenoir, Musée des Mon. Français; Lagrange, Vie de Pierre Puget; Barbet de Jouy, Sculptures mod. au Louvre.

PUGIN, AUGUSTUS WELBY NORTHMORE (1812-1852), architect, was the son of Augustus Pugin, a native of France, who practised as an architect in London. He was born in Store Street, Bedford Square, on 1st March 1812. After completing the ordinary course of education at Christ's Hospital (blue-coat school), he entered his father's office, where he displayed a remarkable talent for drawing. When he had mastered the elements of his profession he devoted a large portion of his time to the sketching of public buildings; he also accompanied his father on several While still very young he professional tours in France. was employed by his father to design furniture in the medieval style for Windsor Castle, and in 1831 he designed the scenery for the new opera of Kenilworth at Her Majesty's Theatre. Shortly afterwards he involved himself deeply in money difficulties by an attempt to establish a manufactory of stained glass, metal work, and furniture at Hart Street, Covent Garden. From the time, however, that he devoted himself steadily to his profession as an architect he never failed to find full employment. Shortly after his secession from the Church of England to that of Rome he published Contrasts; or a Parallel between the Architecture of the 15th and 19th Centuries (1836), in which he severely criticized the architecture of Protestantism. His other principal works are True Principles of Christian Architecture (1841), a Glossary of Ecclesiastical_Ornament (1844), and a Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts (1851). Pugin was the designer of a large number of important Roman Catholic buildings, and also assisted Sir Charles Barry in the preparation of the designs for the new Houses of Parliament, Westminster. Early in 1852 he was attacked by insanity, which caused his death on 14th September of the same year.

Future historians who may write the architectural history of the 19th century will probably describe as its leading characteristic that enthusiastic revival of the Gothic style which took place in the second quarter of the century and continued with unabated vigour for more than thirty years. Among the many able archi tects who during this period contributed to cover England with churches and other buildings, designed in a style which for three centuries had been rejected as barbarous, the name of Pugin deserves to be the most conspicuous. No man so thoroughly mastered the true principles of the Gothic style in its various stages, both in its leading lines and in the minutest details of its mouldings and carved enrichments, and that too at a time when illustrated works on Gothic architecture, such as have since been produced in enormous quantities, had scarcely begun to exist; thus young Pugin had 2 These numerous illustrated works, with every detail shown to a workable scale, by doing away with the necessity for studying the

quence, antiquarian knowledge, and even brilliant humour. This last gift is exemplified in a series of etched plates in his Contrasts : on one side is some noble structure of the Middle Ages, and on the other an example of the same building as erected in the 19th century. His works on Chancel Screens and on The True Principles of Christian Architecture are very ably written and exquisitely illustrated.

Pugin's melancholy and premature end was to a great extent caused by the embittering influence of the constant frustration of his noblest artistic struggles and conceptions.

See Ben. Ferrey, Recollections of A. Welby Pugin and his Father, London, 1861.

PULCI, LUIGI, Italian poet, was born at Florence on 3d December 1431 and died in 1487. The first edition of his Morgante Maggiore appeared at Venice in 1481. (See ITALY, vol. xiii. p. 507 sq.)

to learn the alphabet of his chosen style by careful and laborious
study of the glorious examples of Gothic, both ecclesiastical and
domestic, in which England was then (far more than now) so extra-
ordinarily rich. His father was for many years engaged in prepar-
ing a large series of works on the Gothic buildings of England,
almost, if not quite, the first which were illustrated with accurate
drawings of medieval buildings; the early youth of A. W. Pugin
was mostly occupied in making minute measured drawings for his
father's books, and in this way his enthusiasm for Gothic art was
first aroused. All through his life, both in England and during
many visits to Germany and France, he continued to make, for his
own instruction and pleasure, great numbers of drawings and
sketches, especially in pen and ink, and with sepia monochrome.
These are perhaps the most beautiful architectural sketches that
have ever been produced, perfect in their delicacy and precision of
touch, and masterpieces of skilful treatment of light and shade.
They are mostly minute in scale, some almost microscopic in detail.
Many of the Continental street scenes and interiors of cathedrals
are of especial beauty from their contrasts of brilliant light and
transparent shadow, treated with Rembrandt-like vigour. At a
very early age his wonderful mastery of Gothic detail was shown
by the valuable aid he rendered to Sir Charles Barry in the con-
struction of the new Houses of Parliament in 1836 and 1837.2 For
some time he worked as a paid clerk to Barry, and to Pugin is
mainly due the very remarkable excellence of all the details in this
great building, executed, it must be remembered, at a time when
hitherto all examples of the revived Gothic were of the most ignor-
ant and tasteless description. Pugin not only designed and even
modelled a great part of the sculpture and other decorations of the
building, but had actually to train a school of masons and carvers
to carry out his designs with spirit and accuracy.3
While still young Pugin became a Roman Catholic, and this, if
possible, increased his intense zeal and enthusiasm for Gothic, or,
as he preferred to call it, Christian architecture. His profession
became to him a sort of religion, and his study of medieval build-
ings was closely associated with his love for the mystic symbolism
and the highly resthetic outward form of the old faith. The result
of this was that he was almost wholly employed by adherents of the
Catholic religion. In one way this was a fortunate circumstance,
for it saved him from the temptation of assisting in that great wave
of falsification and vulgarization which, under the name of "restor-
ation," has devastated the principal medieval buildings of Great
Britain and Ireland. In another way it was unfortunate, for his
Catholic employers were mostly much pinched for money, and at
the same time so devoid of all sympathy for the principles of which
he was the chief exponent, that they almost always insisted on the
greatest possible amount of display being made in the cheapest
possible manner. On account of this it is unfair to judge of Pugin's
genius from a critical examination of his executed works. In
almost every caso his design was seriously injured, both by cutting
down its carefully considered proportions and by introducing shams
(above all things hateful to Pugin), such as plaster groining and
even cast-iron carving. The cathedral of St George at Southwark,
and even the church of the Jesuits in Farm Street, Berkeley Square,
London, are melancholy instances of this. Thus his life was one
series of disappointments; no pecuniary success compensated him
for the destruction of his best designs, as in him the man of busi-
ness was thoroughly subordinate to the artist. He himself used to
say that the only church he had ever executed with unalloyed
satisfaction was the one at Ramsgate, which he not only designed
but paid for. Pugin was very broad in his love for the medieval
styles, but on the whole preferred what is really the most suited
to modern requirements, namely, the Perpendicular of the 15th
century, and this he employed in its simpler domestic form with
much success both in his own house at Ramsgate and in the stately
Adare Hall in Ireland, built for Lord Dunraven. The cathedral of
Killarney and the chapel of the Benedictine monastery of Douai
were perhaps the ecclesiastic buildings which were carried out with
least deviation from Pugin's original conception.

PULGAR, FERNANDO DE, Spanish prose-writer of the latter part of the 15th century, born probably at Pulgar near Toledo, was brought up at the court of John II. Henry IV. made him one of his secretaries, and under Isabella he became a councillor of state, was charged with at least one mission to France, and in 1482 was appointed historiographer-royal. His official Chronicle of the reign of the Catholic sovereigns for the period previous to his appointment is loose and inaccurate; but in the later portion, where he had the advantage of personal knowledge, he is always precise and often graphic. It is not brought down beyond the year 1492. It was first printed at Valladolid in 1565 under the name of Antonio de Lebrija. Pulgar's Claros Varones de Castilla, a series of sketches of forty-six of the most celebrated men of the reign and court of Henry IV., is of considerable interest both for its matter and for its style. He wrote, besides, a commentary on the ancient Coplas de Mingo Revulgo; and thirty-two of his Letters written to various persons of eminence, including some to the queen, are also extant. The first edition of the Claros Varones was that of Seville (1500); some of the letters did not appear until 1528. PULKOWA. See OBSERVATORY, vol. xvii. p. 714. PULLEY. See MECHANICS and BLOCK MACHINERY. PULTENEY, WILLIAM, EARL OF BATH (1684-1764), a politician elevated by a living historian 5 into the important position in history of the first leader of the opposition, was descended from an ancient family with a pedigree duly recorded in Nichols's History of Leicestershire (iv. 320). His father, William Pulteney, died in 1715, and the future statesman was the offspring of his first wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in 1684. As his grandfather had been intimately connected with the city of Westminster, the boy was sent to Westminster school and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, acquiring in these institutions that deep classical knowledge which adorned his own speeches and enabled him to correct his great antagonist when he blunOn leaving Oxford he made the dered in a quotation. usual tour on the Continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by Henry Guy for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at the death of that gentleman (a politician who had at one time held the office of secretary of the treasury) Pulteney inherited an estate of £500 a year and £40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734, and though the family was then dispossessed for a time the supremacy was regained in the return of another Pulteney in 1739. Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend

He was a skilful etcher and produced a number of works illustrated in this way by his own hand, and written with much elobuildings themselves, and being used simply like "cribs" to an unknown language, are partly accountable for numberless recent buildings, which, while they are Gothic in form, are utterly devoid of the refinement, fitness, and true taste displayed in the buildings of the Middle Ages.

Three volumes of photographs of these sketches have been pub. lished in a square octavo form, but have suffered from reduction in

size.

A comparison of the decorations of the Houses of Parliament with other contemporary and even later Gothic buildings shows in a very striking way the remarkable talent and industry displayed by Pugin

in the work.

A few years ago very ill-judged attempts were made to claim for Pagin the main credit of Barry's design-claims which he himself would have been the last to raise.

Pugin's sense of humour was keener than is altogether convenient for a man of business; on one occasion when a certain Catholic bishop wrote asking him to design a handsome church, which was to cost an absurdly small sum of money, he replied, "My lord, say thirty shillings more and have a tower and spire."

* Justin M'Carthy, History of the Four Georges, vol. i. (1884).