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owing to its variously-coloured materials and elegant shafts; Viollet le Duc considers one of its galleries to belong to the oldest known type of cathedral cloister (8th and 9th centuries). Connected with the cloister are remains of fortifications of the 13th century, by which it was separated from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral the baptistery of St John (4th century), built on the foundations of a Roman building, is surrounded by walls and numerous remains of the period, partly uncovered by recent excavations. The church of St Lawrence (14th century) contains the remains of Du Guesclin. Le Puy possesses fragmentary remains of its old line of fortifications, among them a machicolated tower, which has been restored, and a few curious old houses dating from the 12th to the 17th century. Of the modern monuments the statue of La Fayette and a fountain in the Place de Breuil, executed in marble, bronze, and syenite, may be specially mentioned. The museum, named after Crozatier, a native metal-worker to whose munificence it principally owes its existence, contains antiquities, engravings, a collection of lace, and ethnographical and natural history collections. Among the curiosities of Puy should be noted the church of St Michel d'Aiguille, beside the gate of the town, perched on an isolated rock like Mont Corneille, the top of which is reached by a staircase of 271 steps. The church dates from the end of the 10th century and its chancel is still older. The steeple is of the same type as that of the cathedral. Three miles from Puy are the ruins of the Château de Polignac, one of the most important feudal strongholds of France. The population of Puy in 1881 was 18,567. The trade is chiefly in cattle, woollens, grains, and vegetables. The principal manufacture is that of laces and blondes (in woollen, linen, cotton, silk, gold, and silver threads), which is carried on by 130,000 workwomen in the neighbourhood, the yearly turnover being £1,000,000. The town is connected by rail with St Étienne and Lyons, and also with Brioude on the line from Clermont-Ferrand to Nîmes.

It is not known whether Le Puy existed previously to the Roman invasion. Towards the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century it became the capital of the country of the Vellavi, at which period the bishopric, originally at Revession, now St Paulien, was transferred hither. Gregory of Tours speaks of it by the name of Anicium, because a chapel "ad Deum" had been built on the mountain, whence the name of Mont Adidon or Ani, which it still retains. In the 10th century it was called Podium Sanctæ Mariæ, whence Le Puy. In the Middle Ages there was a double enclosure, one for the cloister, the other for the town. The sanctuary of Notre Dame was much frequented by pilgrims, and the city grew famous and populous. Rivalries between the bishops (who held directly of the see of Rome) and the lords of Polignac, revolts of the town against the royal authority, and the encroachments of the feudal superiors on municipal prerogatives often disturbed the quiet of the town. The Saracens in the 8th century, the Routiers in the 12th, the English in the 14th, the Burgundians in the 15th, successively ravaged the neighbourhood. Le Puy sent the flower of its chivalry to the crusades in 1096, and Raymond d'Aiguille, called d'Agiles, one of its sons, was their historian. Many councils and various assemblies of the states of Languedoc met within its walls; popes and sovereigns, among the latter Charlemagne and Francis L., visited its sanctuary. Pestilence and the religious wars put an end to its prosperity. Long occupied by the Leaguers, it did not submit to Henry IV. until many years after his accession. PUY DE DOME, a department of central France, fourfifths of which belonged to Basse-Auvergne, one-sixth to Bourbonnais, and the remainder to Forez (Lyonnais), lies between 45° 17′ and 46° 16′ N. lat. and 2° 23′ and 4° E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Allier, on the E. by Loire, on the S. by Haute-Loire and Cantal, and on the W. by Corrèze and Creuse. The chief town, ClermontFerrand, is 217 miles south of Paris in a direct line; and the department takes its name from a volcanic cone (4800 feet) which overlooks it. A meteorological observatory has stood on the summit, on the site of an old Roman temple, since 1876. The highest point of the department,

the Puy de Sancy (6188 feet), is also the most elevated peak of central France; it commands the group of the volcanic Monts Dore, so remarkable for their rocky corries, their erosion valleys, their trap dykes and orgues of basalt, their lakes sleeping in the depths of ancient craters or confined in the valleys by streams of lava, and their wide plains of pasture-land. The Puy de Sancy, forming part of the watershed, gives rise on its northern slope to the Dordogne, and on the east to the Couze, a sub-tributary of the Loire, through the Allier. The Monts Dore are joined to the mountains of Cantal by the non-volcanic group of the Cézallier, of which the highest peak, the Luguet (5101 feet), rises on the confines of Puy de Dôme and Cantal. On the north the Monts Dore are continued by a plateau of the mean height of from 3000 to 3500 feet, upon which are seen sixty cones raised by volcanic outbursts in former times. These are the Monts Dôme, which extend from south to north as far as Riom, the most remarkable being the Puy de Dôme and the Puy de Pariou, the latter having a crater more than 300 feet in depth. To the east of the department, along the confines of Loire, are the Monts du Forez, rising to 5380 feet and still in part crowned with forests. Between these mountains and the Domes extends the fertile plain of Limagne. The drainage of Puy de Dôme is divided between the Loire, by its affluents the Allier and the Cher, and the Gironde, by the Dordogne. The Allier traverses the department from south to north, receiving on its right the Dore, which falls into the Allier at the northern boundary and lowest level of the department (879 feet); on its left are the Alagnon from the Cantal, the two Couzes from the Luguet and the Monts Dore, and the Sioule, the most important of all, which drains the north-west slopes of the Monts Dore and Dôme, and joins the Allier beyond the limits of the department. The Cher forms for a short space the boundary between the departments of Puy de Dôme and Creuse, close to that of Allier, The Dordogne, while still scarcely formed, flows past Mont-Dore-les-Bains and La Bourboule and is lost in Corrèze. None of these streams are navigable, but boats a deep valley which divides this department from that of can be used on the Allier during floods. The climate of Puy de Dôme is usually very severe, owing to its high level and its distance from the sea; the mildest air is found in the northern valleys, where the elevation is least. During summer the hills about Clermont-Ferrand, exposed to the sun, become all the hotter because their black volcanic soil absorbs its rays. On the mountains from 24 to 36 inches of rain fall in the year, but only half this amount (18 inches) in Limagne, around which the mountains arrest the clouds. Nevertheless the soil of this plain, consisting of alluvial deposits of volcanic origin, and watered by torrents and streams from the mountains, makes it one of the richest regions of France.

Of a total area of 1,964,685 acres 925,146 are arable, 266,226 meadow and grass land, 232,210 under wood, 78,006 under vines, while 397,663 are moorland or coarse pasturage. Out of a total of 566,064 inhabitants 392,177 are engaged in agriculture. Puy de Dôme possesses 18,500 horses, 1600 mules, 4850 asses, 16,100 oxen or bulls, 174,000 cows or heifers, 60,500 calves, 309,900 sheep, 90,500 pigs, 22,550 goats, and 25,900 beehives, which in 1881 produced 95 tons of honey and 33 tons of wax. In 1882 there were barley, 320,138 of oats, 25,172 of buckwheat, 5,172,408 bushels of produced 369,313 quarters of wheat, 493,134 of rye, 197,241 of potatoes, and in 1881 234,504 bushels of dried vegetables, 1,986,208 bushels of beetroot, 33 tons of tobacco, 1625 tons of hemp, 21 tons of flax, 26,176 bushels of rape-seed, a great quantity of colza oil, and 13,054,052 gallons of wine. The Limagne produces fruits of all kinds-apricots, cherries, pears, apples, and walnuts, and there are also plantations of mulberry trees. The department possesses numerous mineral treasures. The coal-mines, occupying a surfacearea of 7660 acres, employ 1381 men, and in 1882 produced 188,234 tons. The most important, at Brassac on the Allier, on the borders of Haute-Loire, employ 1200 or 1500 men (in the two departments). Next come those of St Éloi near the department of Allier, and of

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snow-covered summits of the Elburz are seen on the
south.

Bourg-Lastic and Messeix on the borders of Corrèze. The depart-
ment also works peat, asphalt, and bituminous schists. Mines
of argentiferous lead employ 640 men and produce 33,695 tons of
lead or silver, worth £45,600. The most important mines and
foundries are at Pontgibaud on the Sioule. Copper, arsenic, iron,
antimony, barium sulphate, alum, manganese, white lead, sulphur,
sulphuretted zinc, loadstone, and (of precious stones) amethysts,
jacinths, rubies, agates, chalcedonies, opals, are also found in the
department. Quarries of porphyry and lava are worked (Volvic
with 900 men), as well as marl, limestone, and gypsum. The hot
springs of Mont Dore, known in the days of the Romans, contain a
mixture of arsenic and iron bicarbonates, and are used especially
for affections of the respiratory organs. The waters of La Bour-
boule, containing sodium chlorides and bicarbonates, are particularly
rich in arsenic, and efficacious against affections of the lymphatic
glands, scrofula, diseases of the skin and air-passages, and rheuma-
tism. The springs of St Nectaire, containing sodium and iron
chlorides and bicarbonates, are efficacious in liver complaints,
rheumatism, and gravel. Some of them are petrifying, as the
spring of St Allyre at Clermont-Ferrand. The waters of Royat,
in use in the time of the Romans, containing sodium and iron
chlorides and bicarbonates, sparkling and rich in lithia, are used
in cases of anæmia, rheumatism, gout, diabetes, and gravel. The
waters of Châteauneuf (on the Sioule), also known to the Romans,
contain iron bicarbonates and are resorted to for skin diseases.
Those of Châtelguyon, like the waters of Carlsbad and Marienbad,
are used for disorders of the digestive organs, congestions of the
liver, rheumatism, &c. The waters of Châteldon are used for the
table. There are other chalybeate waters at St Martial, Beaulieu,
Pontgibaud, St Myon, St Maurice, Arlanc, and many other mineral
springs of varied character. Manufactures are for the most part
grouped around Thiers, which produces a large amount of cheap
cutlery, pasteboards (especially adapted for stamps or playing-
cards), and leather; 20,000 workmen are thus employed, and the
annual turn-over amounts to £1,200,000. The department con-
tains important paper-mills, factories for lace and braid (in the
mountains), for buntings, and camlets. Those for wool, cotton, and
hemp contain 3500 spindles and more than 400 looms. There are
wool-carding works and factories for linens, cloths, and counter-
panes, also silk-mills, tanneries, manufactories for chamois and
other leathers, for caoutchouc, important sugar-works, starch-works,
manufactures of edible pastes with a reputation as high as those of
Italy, and manufactures of fruit-preserves. The saw-mills and the
cheese industry in the mountains complete the list, which includes
201 establishments employing 75,553 persons. The department
exports grain, fruits, cattle, wines, cheese, wood, and mineral
waters. Traffic is carried on over 294 miles of Government roads,
9591 miles of other roads, and 178 miles of railway. The depart
ment is crossed from north to south by the railway from Paris to
Nîmes, and that of Vichy to Thiers; from west to east by that
from Bordeaux to Lyons by Tulle, Clermont-Ferrand, and Thiers,
with branches from Eygurande to Largnac and from Vertaison to
Billom. It is skirted on the north-west by the line from Montluçon
to Gannat, with a branch line for goods to the mines of St Eloi,
Twenty thousand inhabitants of the department, belonging chiefly
to the district of Ambert, leave it during winter and find work
elsewhere as navvies, chimney-sweeps, pit-sawyers, &c. The de-
partment in 1881 contained 566,064 inhabitants and includes five
arrondissements-CLERMONT-FERRAND (q.v.), Ambert (town, 3940
inhabitants), Issoire (6137), Riom (9590), Thiers (10,583)-50 can-
tons, and 467 communes. It is attached to the bishopric of Cler-
mont-Ferrand and to the 13th Army Corps in the same town;
the superior court is at Riom.
(G. ME.)

The sulphur springs, about fifteen in number, come from a great depth, from trachytic rocks, and vary in temperature from 72° to 115° Fahr.; they are used both for drinking and for bathing. Before the opening of the railway the summer patients already numbered thousands and have become more numerous since; but defective accommodation and high prices tend to prevent their further increase, notwithstanding the very high esteem in which these mineral waters are held by medical authorities, both Russian and its trade has always had some importance, and it is still visited West European. The industries of Pyatigorsk are insignificant, but during its fairs by a few Persian merchants.

PYÆMIA. See PATHOLOGY (vol. xviii. p. 401) and SURGERY.

PYGMALION is the Greek form of a Phoenician name
probably derived from the name of a god, by (C.I.S.,
par. i. t. i. p. 133). Pygmalion or, as Josephus writes,
Phygmalion, brother of Dido (Elissa), has been spoken of
in PHOENICIA (vol. xviii. p. 807). Another Pygmalion,
son of Cilix and grandson of Agenor, king of Cyprus, is the
subject of a famous story. He fell in love with an ivory
statue he had made; Aphrodite granted life to the image,
and Pygmalion married the miraculously born virgin (Ovid,
Metam., x. 243 sq.).

PYGMIES. The name "pygmy" (Greek vyμaîos, from
TUуμý) means one whose height is measured by the distance
between the elbow and the knuckles of an ordinary man,
or rather less than an ell. The pygmies appear in Homer
(Il., iii. 6) as a tiny folk who dwelt by the streams of Ocean
in the far southern land whither the cranes fly at the
The cranes made war
approach of our northern winter.
on them and slaughtered them. These battles between
the pygmies and the cranes are often mentioned by later
Philo-
writers and are frequently represented on vases.
stratus describes a picture of the sleeping Hercules beset by
swarms of pygmies, as Gulliver was by the Lilliputians.
Aristotle held that the pygmies were a race of little men
inhabiting the marshes out of which he supposed the Nile
to flow. Other writers localized them in various parts of
the world. Ctesias describes at some length a race of
pygmies in the heart of India. They were black and ugly;
the tallest of them were only two ells high; their hair and
beards were so long that they served them as garments;
they were excellent bowmen, and hunted hares and foxes
with hawks, ravens, and eagles; their language and customs
honest; their cattle were small in proportion. Pygmies
were those of the rest of the Indians, and they were very
are also mentioned in Thrace (where they were called
Catizi by the natives, according to Pliny) and in Caria.
Eustathius speaks of pygmies in the far north, near Thule.
Strabo was inclined to regard them as fabulous; no trust-
worthy person, he says, had seen them. There is, how-
ever, a story in Herodotus which would seem to show that
the belief in the pygmies originated in well-founded
reports of a race of undersized men in the heart of Africa.
According to Herodotus (ii. 32), five men of the Nasamon-
ians (a Libyan people near the Greater Syrtis) journeyed
westward through the desert for many days till they came
to a tribe of little black men of a strange speech, by whose
city ran a great river flowing from west to east, and in it
there were crocodiles; moreover, there were fruit-bearing
trees in that country and great marshes. This story is not
improbable; the river may have been the Niger (Joliba or
Quorra) and the people may have been allied to the Akka,
an undersized race discovered within recent years near the
equator by Schweinfurth, who thinks that they, as well as
the Bushmen of South Africa, are remnants of an abori-
ginal population of Africa now becoming extinct.

PYATIGORSK, a district town and watering-place. of Caucasus, Russia, in the government of Terek, 124 miles by rail to the north-west of Vladikavkaz. It owes its origin to its mineral waters, which had long been known to the inhabitants of Caucasus, and even at the beginning of the present century attracted many Russians, who used to stay at the Konstantinogorsk fort, 2 miles off. The first buildings at the mineral springs were erected, however, in 1812, and in 1830 the name of Pyatigorsk ("town of the five mountains"), referring to the five summits of the Beshtau, was given to the new settlement. Its subsequent rapid increase was greatly stimulated by the completion of its railway connexion with Rostoff, and it has now nearly 14,000 inhabitants (13,670 in 1882). The town is charmingly situated on a small plateau on the south-western slopes of the Mashuka mountain, by which and the Beshtat it is protected on the north. The

PYM, JOHN (1584-1643), was born at Brymore in Somerset in 1584. In 1599 he entered Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner. He is said by Clarendon to have held at a later date an office in the exchequer, in which he no doubt acquired that

familiarity with financial business which afterwards dis- | to a hasty dissolution of parliament, but it laid down the tinguished him. His wife, Anna Hooker, died in 1620, and in the following year he entered parliament for the first time as member for Calne, the statement that he sat in the Addled Parliament being now known to have been erroneous. To the patronage of the earl of Bedford no doubt Pym owed the position which he thus acquired. The use which he made of it was all his own. He had none of the fire of Eliot's genius, but he early showed himself to be possessed of the two qualities which in combination make a leader of men, a thorough and honest sympathy with the ideas of the time and a moderation in their application. There was more of measured force in him than there was in Eliot. His powers as a party leader were as yet unsuspected.

basis of a policy which afterwards stood Pym in good stead. That policy was precisely what had been foreshadowed in his speech of 1621, the association of the majority who thought alike in civic union against official authority; but that which in 1621 was to be a union of Englishmen alone in 1640 included Scots as well.

Pym's name was first prominently brought forward by his speech of 8th November 1621, directed against the Catholics. He strove to distinguish between an attempt "to punish them for believing and thinking" what they did and the disabling of them from doing "that which they think and believe they ought to do." His remedy was an oath of association to be taken by all loyal Protestants. Those who object to Pym's counsel as divisive must nevertheless acknowledge that there was a singular consistency in his advocacy of it. By organizing the resistance of the majority of Englishmen, he wished to baffle parties which might be dangerous by their organization or by the assistance which they might receive from abroad.

With the dissolution of the Short Parliament Pym once more sinks out of sight. There is, however, good reason to suppose that the summer months of 1640 were for him a time of unusual activity, and that he was a leading spirit in those negotiations with the Scots the exact nature of which cannot now be traced. At all events in the end of August he was in close communication with the leaders of the opposition, and he then drew up, in co-operation with St John, the petition in which twelve peers demanded the redress of grievances and the summoning of parliament. The rout of Newburn gave emphasis to the language of the peers, and on 3d November 1640 the Long Parliament met.

Pym's leadership of the Commons rested on his sympathy with the feelings of the House combined with his skill in directing those feelings into a practical course. He expressed the general sentiment in the impeachment of Strafford and Laud, and in the passing of the Triennial Act, which was to make the long intermission of parliaments impossible for the future. In the trial of Strafford he showed himself resolute. Being determined to give to an act of state policy the character of a vindication of the law, Pym had to contend against the impatience of his followers and against the efforts of Charles, and still more of Henrietta Maria, to save Strafford by force. Over

After the dissolution Pym was confined for three months in his house in London. In the following parliament he pleaded for the execution of the penal laws against recusants and for the restoration of the silenced Puritan clergy. In 1626 he was one of the managers of Bucking-whelmed for a moment by the impatience of the House, ham's impeachment. In 1628 he was equally prominent which converted the impeachment into a bill of attainder, in advocating the Petition of Right and in carrying on the he yet carried his point that the change should be no impeachment of Mainwaring. The political question and more than nominal, and that the legal arguments should the religious question were in Pym's mind fused into one. proceed just as if the impeachment had been continued. His intellect was intensely conservative, not easily admitting new ideas or projecting itself into the future to deal with growing changes in society, but seeking to rest on the conservatism of existing society rather than on the maintenance of artificial forces. He looked for support to the nation itself, and he found it hard to believe that the national judgment could much differ from his own. In 1629 he found himself differing from those with whom he usually acted. Eliot carried the House with him in turning the dispute with the king on the question of tonnage and poundage into one of parliamentary privilege, whilst Pym thought that the main question of the king's right to levy the duties without a parliamentary grant should be first attacked. He was beaten at the time, but his defeat was full of promise for the future. It is much in a man's favour that he is ready to look a difficulty fully in the face. It is characteristic of Pym that nothing is heard of him either during the riotous proceedings in which this parliament closed or during the eleven years which passed without a parliament at all. He had neither the virtues nor the failings which accompany excitability of temperament. With the Short Parliament Pym's three and a half years of authority begin. His speech of 17th April 1640 on grievances lasted for two hours, a length of time without precedent in the parliaments of those days. It was not eloquent in the sense in which Eliot's speeches were eloquent, but it summed up in a telling manner the grievances under which, in the opinion of the vast majority of thinking Englishmen, the commonwealth laboured. Before the session closed he showed his powers as a parliamentary tactician by proposing to bring forward the Scottish grievances and to make a peace with the Scots the condition of the grant of supplies. This proposal led

The struggle within the House itself was the least part of Pym's labours. In meeting the army plot and the other intrigues of the court he had to develop the powers of a commissioner of police, to be as ready in collecting and sifting information as he was prompt in counteracting the danger which he feared. In the protestation which was adopted by the Commons on 3d May he fell back on his old remedy, banding together the majority in resistance to an unscrupulous minority. By the legislation which followed on the death of Strafford the abolition of the special courts which had been erected to defend the Tudor monarchy, and the abandonment by the crown of its claim to levy customs without a parliamentary grant-he brought the king under the obligation to govern according to law. Much, however, remained to be done. Pym had to provide against the breach by force or fraud of the compact made, and also to provide for the harmonious working of the executive and legislative bodies. He proposed to attain these ends by demanding that the king's ministers should be responsible to parliament. To effect this it was necessary that parliament should be united, and to obtain this end it was necessary to solve the religious difficulty. In the autumn of 1641 it appeared that a majority of the Peers and a large minority of the Commons wished to maintain the worship of the Prayer Book very nearly intact, whilst a minority of the Peers and a majority of the Commons wished to make very considerable alterations in it. To bind these two parties together against the king needed constructive statesmanship of the highest order, and this neither Pym nor any one else in the House showed signs of possessing. In the Grand Remonstrance, instead of indicating terms of compromise, he proposed to throw the regulation of the church on an assembly of divines to be

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chosen by parliament,-that is to say, he combined the terrors of a vague threat of impending change with the entire absence of any security that those changes would be moderate. From that moment there were two parties in the state neither of which would give way to the other. Charles's attempt to arrest Pym and four other members on 4th January 1642 embittered but did not produce the conflict. For some months there was much fencing between the two parties, and the Civil War was not begun till Charles raised his standard at Nottingham.

During the remaining months of Pym's life he was the most prominent leader of the war party in the House of Commons. Peace may be made in two ways, by one side capitulating to the other, or by the discovery of a compromise which may give effect to the better aims of both sides. Pym was resolutely set against a capitulation, and he did not rise to the height of a mediator. His adversaries of the peace party, led by Holles and Maynard, had as little idea of a compromise as he had, and they were foolish enough to suppose it possible to obtain the assent of Charles and his supporters to the establishment of a Puritan Church.

acquired a more definite meaning in its geometrical sense
that it is desirable to employ it in that sense alone. A
pyramid therefore should be understood as meaning a
building bounded by a polygonal base and plane triangular
sides which meet in an apex. Such a form of architecture
is only known in Middle Egypt, and there only during the
period from the IVth to the XIIth Dynasty (before 2000
B.C.)-having square bases and angles of about 50°. In
other countries various modifications of the tumulus,
barrow, or burial-heap have arisen which have come near
to this type; but these when formed of earth are usually
circular, or, if square, have a flat top, and when built of
stone are always in steps or terraces. The imitations of
the true Egyptian pyramid at Abydos, Meroe, and else-
where are puny hybrids, being merely chambers with a
pyramidal outside and porticos attached; and the struc-
tures found at Cenchreæ, or the monument of Caius Sestius
at Rome, are isolated and barren trials of a type which
never could be revived: it had run its course in a country
and a civilization to which alone it was suitable.

Pym's policy was at least coherent with itself. In 1621, on his first prominent appearance in political life, he had advocated the formation of an association against popery. The protestation of 1641 was an attempt to carry this plan into practice and to make it at the same time available against Royalist intrigues. The Parliamentary covenant promulgated after the discovery of Waller's plot in June 1643 was an enlargement of the same project, and the Solemn League and Covenant in September 1643 embraced the three kingdoms. As long as he lived Pym was the soul of the Parliamentary resistance to the king, but it is in the covenants and associations which he brought into existence that his permanent contribution to English political development is to be found. Eliot hoped to rally parliament and the constituencies as a whole to the cause which he maintained to be just. Strafford hoped to rouse the devotion of the nation as a whole to the king whose crown was supported by his own masterful intellect. Pym was the founder of party government in England. He recognized from the first that there were differences of religious opinion amongst his fellow-countrymen, and he hoped to rally round a common purpose those who on the whole felt as he did himself, with such liberty of opinion as was possible under such conditions. If the enterprise failed it was partly because he was assailed by intrigue as well as by fair opposition, and in his fierce struggle against intrigue learned to cling to doctrines which were not sufficiently expansive for the government of a nation, partly because the limitations of government itself and the insufficiency of force to solve a complicated religious and political problem were in his time very imperfectly understood. At least Pym prepared the way for the immediate victory of his party by summoning the Scots and by the financial measures which made the campaigns of 1644 and 1645 possible.

In the earliest monuments of Egypt there are three
types, which were ruled by the external shape. For the
temples (such as those of the kings of the IVth Dynasty
at Gizeh) varied in shape according to their arrangements;
but the pyramid, the obelisk, and the mastaba2 are designs
whose importance was outward; and these types, which
started apparently at the same epoch (the earliest actually
dated examples of each being all within the two reigns of
Seneferu and Khufu), only lasted during the life of that
archaic system to which they belonged. The pyramid
type faded out in the middle kingdom (XIIth Dynasty);
the obelisk was adapted in later times to a different purpose,
as a member of bilateral temple decoration, instead of a
solitary monument complete in itself and surrounded by an
enclosure, as it was in the old kingdom; and the mastaba
gave way to the rock-hewn chapel or the bastard pyramid.
In considering the origin of the pyramid type there
are three theories to be dealt with-(1) that it is merely
a higher and refined form of the tumulus; (2) that it
was derived from the mastaba; (3) that it was a fresh
idea, an invention de novo. The objection to the first
view is that there is no graduated series of examples of
lesser sizes before the large ones, possibly not any before
the very largest, and that tumulus or mound burial is
unknown in Egypt, ancient or modern; and to accept this
view we must suppose that all the earlier stages were
wrought in another land, and that the pyramid-builders
migrated into Egypt when at the height of their architec-
tural power. But their history does not agree to this, and
in no other land can we find their training-ground. The
second view is strongly suggested by the facts before us
in Egypt. The only buildings that have been reasonably
supposed to be earlier than the great pyramid are the two
so-called pyramids of Sakkara and Medum. These struc-
tures are not and never were true pyramids; they are
mastabas added to by successive accretions at various
times, again and again finished off with a polished casing,
only to be afresh enlarged by coats of rough masonry and
another fine casing on the outside, until they have been
extended upwards and around into a great stepped mass of
masonry (Petrie, Pyramids, &c., p. 147), the successive
faces of which rise at the characteristic mastaba angle of
75° (or 4 on 1). These buildings then present the outline
of a pyramidal pile, broken by successive steps, and it is
but one stage further to build in one smooth slope from
base to top; such a form would readily be designed when
once it was intended to build a large mass complete at

He did not, however, live to reap the harvest which was due to his efforts. Worn out by the strain of constant and agitating work, his health broke down, and on 8th December 1643 he died. His body was followed by both Houses when it was carried to be interred in Westminster Abbey. (S. R. G.) PYRAMID. This name for a class of buildings, though first taken from a part of the structure,1 and mistakenly applied to the whole of it by the Greeks, has now so far

1 The vertical height was named by the Egyptians pir-em-us (see E. Revillout, Rev. Eg., 2d year, 305-309), hence the Greek form pyramis, pl. pyramides (Herod.), used unaltered in the English of Sandys (1615), from which the singular pyramid was formed.

2 An oblong building with sloping sides and flat top, which contained usually the funeral chapel and place of offerings, and covered over the mouth of the sepulchral pit.

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once on one uniform plan, as certainly was the case for
the largest pyramids. The third view has some support
in the absence of any datable pyramids before the largest
and the second largest that ever existed, and in the steady
deterioration of work that is known to have taken place.
Remembering also what bold steps architecture has taken
occasionally in later times (as in the Pantheon and St
Sophia) without a series of graduated examples, we should
not condemn this view too readily by a priori reasoning.
It is certain that the pyramids were each begun with a
definite design of their size and arrangement; at least
this is plainly seen in the two largest, where continuous
accretion (such as Lepsius and his followers propound)
would be most likely to be met with. On looking at any
section of these buildings it will be seen how impossible it
would have been for the passages to have belonged to a
smaller structure (Petrie, 165). The supposition that the
designs were enlarged so long as the builder's life permitted
was drawn from the compound mastabas of Sakkara and
Medum; these are, however, quite distinct architecturally
from true pyramids, and appear to have been enlarged at
long intervals, being elaborately finished with fine casing
at the close of each addition.

Around many of the pyramids peribolus walls may be
seen, and it is probable that some enclosure originally ex-
isted around each of them. At the pyramids of Gizeh the
temples attached to these mausolea may be still seen.
As in the private tomb, the false door which represented
the exit of the deceased person from this world, and to-
wards which the offerings were made, was always on the
west wall in the chamber, so the pyramid was placed on
the west of the temple in which the deceased king was
worshipped. The temple being entered from the east (as
in the Jewish temples), the worshippers faced the west,
looking toward the pyramid in which the king was buried.
Priests of the various pyramids are continually mentioned
during the old kingdom, and the religious endowments of
many of the priesthoods of the early kings were revived
under the Egyptian renaissance of the XXVIth Dynasty
and continued during Ptolemaic times. A list of the
hieroglyphic names of nineteen of the pyramids which
have been found mentioned on monuments (mostly in
tombs of the priests) is given in Lieblein's Chronology, p.
32. The pyramid was never a family monument, but be-
longed-like all other Egyptian tombs-to one person,
members of the royal family having sometimes lesser
pyramids adjoining the king's (as at Khufu's); the essen-
tial idea of the sole use of a tomb was so strong that the
hill of Gizeh is riddled with deep tomb-shafts for separate
burials, often running side by side 60 or 80 feet deep
with only a thin wall of rock between; and in one place
a previous shaft has been partially blocked with masonry,
so that a later shaft could be cut partly into it, macled
with it like a twin-crystal.

Turning now to the architecture of the buildings, their usual construction is a mass of masonry composed of horizontal layers of rough-hewn blocks, with a small amount of mortar; and this mass in the later forms became more and more rubbly, until in the VIth Dynasty it was merely a cellular system of retaining walls of rough stones and mud, filled up with loose chips, and in the XIIth Dynasty the bulk was of mud bricks. Whatever was the hidden material, however, there was always on the outside a casing of fine stone, elaborately finished, and very well jointed; and the inner chambers were of similarly good work. Indeed the construction was in all cases so far sound that, had it not been for the spite of enemies and the greed of later builders, it is probable that every pyramid would have been standing in good order at this day. The casings were not a mere "veneer or "film,"

as they have been called, but were of massive blocks, usually greater in thickness than in height, and in some cases (as at South Dahshur) reminding the observer of horizontal leaves with sloping edges.

The

Inside of each pyramid, always low down, and usually below the ground level, was built a sepulchral chamber; this was reached in all cases by a passage from the north, sometimes beginning in the pyramid face, sometimes descending into the rock on which the pyramid was built in front of the north side. This chamber, if not cut in the rock altogether (as in Menkaura's), or a pit in the rock roofed with stone (as in Khafra's), was built between two immense walls which served for the east and west sides, and between which the north and south sides and roofing stood merely in contact, but unbonded. gable roofing of the chambers was formed by great sloping cantilevers of stone, projecting from the north and south walls, on which they rested without pressing on each other along the central ridge; thus there was no thrust, nor were there any forces to disturb the building; and it was only after the most brutal treatment, by which these great masses of stone were cracked asunder, that the principle of thrust came into play, though it had been provided for in the sloping form of the roof, so as to delay as long as This is best seen possible the collapse of the chamber. in the pyramid of Pepi (Petrie), opened from the top right through the roof. See also the Abusir pyramids (Howard Vyse) and the king's and queen's chambers of the great pyramid (Howard Vyse, Piazzi Smyth, Petrie). The roofing is sometimes, perhaps usually, of more than one layer; in Pepi's pyramid it is of three layers of stone beams, each deeper than their breadth, resting one on another, the thirty stones weighing more than 30 tons each. In the king's chamber (Gizeh) successive horizontal roofs were interposed between the chamber and the final gable roof, and such may have been the case at Abu Roash (Howard Vyse). The passages which led into the central chambers have usually some lesser chamber in their course, and are blocked once or oftener with massive stone portcullises. In all cases some part, and generally the greater part, of the passages slopes downwards, usually at an angle of about 26°, or 1 on 2. These passages appear to have been closed externally with stone doors turning on a horizontal pivot, as may be seen at South Dahshur, and as is described by Strabo and others (Petrie). This suggests that the interiors of the pyramids were accessible to the priests, probably for making offerings; the fact of many of them having been forcibly entered otherwise does not show that no practicable entrance existed, but merely that it was unknown, as, for instance, in the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra, both of which were regularly entered in classical times, but were forced by the ignorant Arabs.

The pyramids of nearly all the kings of the IVth, Vth, and VIth Dynasties are mentioned in inscriptions, and also a few of later times. The first which can be definitely attributed is that of Khufu (or Cheops), called "the glorious," the great pyramid of Gizeh. Ratatef, who appears next to Khufu in the lists, is unknown in other monuments; he is perhaps the same as Khnumu-Khufu, apparently a co-regent of Khufu, who may have been buried in the the great pyramid, now known as the second pyramid of Gizeh. so-called queen's chamber of the great pyramid. Khafra rested in Menkaura's pyramid was called "the upper," being at the highest level on the hill of Gizeh. The lesser pyramids of Gizeh, near the great and third pyramids, belong respectively to the families of Khufu and Khafra (Howard Vyse). The pyramid of a Men(ka)ra at Abu Roash is probably also of this period. The pyramid of Aseskaf, called "the cool," is unknown, so also is that of Userkaf of the Vth Dynasty, called the "holiest of buildings." Sahura's pyramid, the north one of Abusir, was named "the rising soul," much as Neferkara's (of unknown site) was named "of the soul." mid of Abusir. Raenuser's pyramid, "the firmest of buildings," is the middle pyraThe pyramid of Menkauhor, called "the most divine building," is somewhere at Sakkara. Assa's pyramid is unidentified; it was "the beautiful." Unas not only built the

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