In March 1318 first the town and then the castle of Berwick capitulated, and Bruce wasted the English border as far as Ripon. In December he held a parliament at Scone, where he displayed the same wisdom as a legislator which he had shown as a general. The death of his brother and his daughter rendered a resettlement of the crown advisable, which was made in the same order as before, with a provision as to the regency in case of a minor heir in favour of Randolph, and failing him Douglas. The defence of the country was next cared for by regulations for the arming of the whole nation, down to every one who owned the value of a cow,- —a measure far in advance of the old feudal levy. Exports during war and of arms at any time were prohibited. Internal justice was regulated, and it was declared that it was to be done to poor and rich alike. Leasing-making-a Scottish term for seditious language—was to be sternly punished. The nobles were exhorted not to oppress the commons. Reforms were also made in the tedious technicalities of the feudal law.

In 1319 an attempt to recover Berwick was repelled by Walter the Steward, and Bruce took occasion of a visit to compliment his son-in-law and raise the walls 10 feet.

His position was now so strong that foreign states began to testify their respect. Bruges and Ypres rejected a request of Edward to cut off the Scottish trade with Flanders. The pope, who had excommunicated Bruce, was addressed by the parliament of Arbroath in 1320 in a letter which compared Bruce to a Joshua or Judas Maccabæus, who had wrought the salvation of his people, and declared they fought "not for glory, truth, or honour, but for that liberty which no virtuous man will survive." Moved by this language and conscious of the weakness of Edward, the pope exhorted him to make peace with Scotland, and three years later Randolph at last procured the recognition of Bruce as king from the papal see by promising aid in a crusade. In 1326 the French king made a similar acknowledgment by the treaty of Corbeil. Meantime hostilities more or less constant continued with England, but, though in 1322 Edward made an incursion as far as Edinburgh, the fatal internal weakness of his government prevented his gaining any real success. Some of his chief nobles-Lancaster in 1321 and Sir Andrew Hartcla in 1322-entered into correspondence with the Scots, and, though Hartcla's treason was detected and punished by his death, Edward was forced to make a treaty for a long truce of thirteen years at Newcastle on 30th May, which Bruce ratified at Berwick. The intrigue of the queen with Roger Mortimer led to the end of the ignominious reign by Edward's deposition and murder in 1327; and one of the first acts of the new reign, after a narrow escape of the young king from capture by Randolph, was the treaty of York, ratified at Northampton in April 1328, by which it was agreed that "Scotland, according to its ancient bounds in the days of Alexander III., should remain to Robert, king of Scots, and his heirs free and divided from England, without any subjection, servitude, claim or demand whatsoever." Johanna, Edward's sister, was to be given in marriage to David, the infant son of Bruce, and the ceremony was celebrated at Berwick on 12th July.

The chief author of Scottish independence barely survived his work. His last years had been spent chiefly at the castle of Cardross on the Clyde, which he acquired in 1326, and the conduct of war, as well as the negotiations for peace, had been left to the young leaders Randolph and Douglas, whose training was one of Bruce's services to his country. Ever active, he employed himself in the narrower sphere of repairing the castle and improving its domains and gardens, in shipbuilding on the Clyde, and in the exercise of the royal virtues of hospitality and charity. The reli

gious feeling, which had not been absent even during the struggles of manhood, deepened in old age, and took the form the piety of the times prescribed. He made careful provision for his funeral, his tomb, and masses for his soul. He procured from the pope a bull authorizing his confessor to absolve him even at the moment of death. He died from leprosy, contracted in the hardships of earlier life, on 7th June 1329, and was buried at Dunfermline beside his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh, whom he had married about 1304, and who bore him late his only son, David, who succeeded him. Of two surviving daughters, Matilda married Thomas Ysaak, a simple esquire, and Margaret became the wife of William, earl of Sutherland. Marjory, an only child by his first wife, Isabella of Mar, had predeceased him. Several children not born in wedlock have been traced in the records, but none of them became in any way famous.

In fulfilment of a vow to visit the Holy Sepulchre, which he could not accomplish in person, Bruce requested Douglas to carry his heart there, but his faithful follower perished on the way, fighting in Spain against the Moors, and the heart of Bruce, recovered by Sir William Keith, found its resting-place at Melrose. When his corpse was disinterred in 1819 the breast-bone was found severed to admit of the removal of the heart, thus confirming the story preserved in the verses of Barbour. That national poet collected in the earliest Scottish poem, written in the reign of Bruce's grandson, the copious traditions which clustered round his memory. It is a panegyric; but history has not refused to accept it as a genuine representation of the character of the great king, in spirit, if not in every detail. Its dominant note is freedom-the liberty of the It is the same note which Tacitus embodied in the speech of nation from foreign bondage, and of the individual from oppression. Galgacus at the dawn of Scottish history. Often as it has been heard before and since in the course of history, seldom has it had a more illustrious champion than Robert the Bruce. (Æ. M.)

ROBERT, the name of two dukes of Normandy. See NORMANDY, vol. xvii. p. 542 for ROBERT I. (d. 1035) and p. 544 for ROBERT II. (d. 1134); see also ENGLand, vol. viii. p. 301.

ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808), born at Paris in 1753, deserves to be remembered not so much for his skill as a painter as for the liveliness and point with which he treated the subjects he painted. The contrast between the ruins of ancient Rome and the life of his time excited his keenest interest; and, although he had started for Italy on his own responsibility, the credit he there acquired procured him the protection of the minister Marigny and an official allowance. His incessant activity as an artist, his daring character, his many adventures, attracted general sympathy and admiration. In the fourth canto of his L'Imagination Delille celebrated Robert's miraculous escape when lost in the catacombs; later in life, when imprisoned during the Terror and marked for the guillotine, by a fatal accident another died in his place and Robert lived. The quantity of his work is immense; the Louvre alone contains nine paintings by his hand and specimens are frequently to be met with in provincial museums and private collections. In spite of a certain naturalness in details which was wanting to his predecessor Panini, all Robert's work has more or less of that scenic character which justified the taste of Voltaire when he selected him to paint the decora tions of his theatre at Ferney. Robert fell, struck by apoplexy, on 15th April 1808. His brush was in his hand; he had painted till the last moment. He was much engraved by the abbé Le Non, with whom he had visited Naples in the company of Fragonard during his early days; in Italy his work has also been frequently reproduced by Chatelain, Liénard, Le Veau, and others.

See C. Blanc, Hist. des Peintres; Villot, Notice des Tableaux du

Louvre; Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod. fr. Malerei,

ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835), French painter, was born at Chaux de Fonds (Neufchâtel) in Switzerland on 13th May 1794, but left his native place with the en

graver Girardet at the age of sixteen for Paris. He was on the eve of obtaining the great prize for engraving when the events of 1815 blasted his hopes, for Neufchâtel was restored to Prussia and Robert was struck off the list of competitors as a foreigner. Having fortunately whilst continuing his studies under Girardet never ceased to frequent the studio of David, he now determined to become a painter, and only returned to his native country when his master himself was exiled. At Neufchâtel he had the good fortune to attract the notice of Roullet de Mezerac, who enabled him by a timely loan to proceed to Rome. At Rome Robert soon struck the vein of subject destined to render his talent celebrated. In depicting the customs and life of the people, of southern Italy especially, he showed peculiar feeling for the historical characteristics of their race. All his work of this class was distinguished by an individual style: the actors bore themselves with an air of distinction and something of gravity which witnessed to their ancient lineage, and the rhythmical play of line which characterized all these compositions had a peculiar affinity to the nature of the types which figured in them. The charm of choice in these types, the beauty of this play of line, and the plastic restraint and measure which also marked Robert's treatment of his favourite subjects were the points to which he owed the wide recognition of his talent, for his command of his own powers was anything but ready and his difficulty in bringing out what he desired to produce shackled him, and especially so because painting requires a sure and ready hand if its means are to be used with brilliant effect. After executing many detached studies of Italian life Robert conceived the idea of paint ing four great works which should represent at one and the same time the four seasons in Italy and the four leading races of its people. In the Return from the Fête of the Madonna dell' Arco (Louvre) he depicted the Neapolitans and the spring. This picture, exhibited at the Salon of 1827, achieved undoubted success and was bought for the Luxembourg by Charles X.; but the work which appeared in 1831-the Summer Reapers arriving in the Pontine Marshes (Louvre), which became the property of Louis Philippe-established the artist's reputation, an Robert found himself with all his hopes of honour fulfilled and reckoned as one of the leading masters of his day. Florence and her autumn vineyards should now have furnished him with his third subject. He attempted to begin it, but, unable to conquer his unhappy passion for Princess Charlotte Napoleon (then mourning the violent death of her husband, Robert's devoted friend), he threw up his work and went to Venice, where he began and carried through the fourth of the series, the Fishers of the Adriatic. This work was not equal to the Reapers. Worn by the vicissitudes of painful feeling and bitterly discouraged, Robert committed suicide before his easel, 20th March 1835, on the tenth anniversary of the melan choly suicide of a brother to whom he had been much

attached.

See Villot, Notice des Tableaux du Louvre; C. Blanc, Hist. des

Peintres; Feuillet de Conches, Correspondance de L. L. Robert;

Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod. fr. Malerei.

ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, an English antiquary and historical writer, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, was a monk of the abbey at Gloucester, and is supposed by Hearne, the editor of his Chronicle, to have been sent to preside over the foundation at Oxford (afterwards Worcester College), where the younger members of the abbey were partly educated. This, however, is mere conjecture. The evidence which establishes his claim to be the author of the Chronicle (by which he is best known) is also extremely slight. In the Harleian MS. 201 (from which Hearne printed his edition) there occurs (fol. 159b

to 160) an account of the battle of Evesham. The narration implies that the writer was living at that time (1265), for he describes the dark and dismal weather that pre vailed on the day of the battle, adding, "This isci Roberd, That verst this boc made," a passage, however, which may possibly have reference not to the versifier but to the original compiler of the Chronicle.1 The period at which the Chronicle was composed was evidently late in the 13th or early in the 14th century, as it contains a reference to the canonization of St Louis, king of France, which took place on 11th August 1297. From an historical point of view, however, the Chronicle is of but little value. The internal evidence shows it to have been a translation from the French and the original in turn to have been a mere compilation. The narrative commences with a description of Britain, taken from Henry of Huntingdon; the material is next derived mainly from Geoffrey of Monmouth, and then, again, from William of Malmesbury, special information being supplied, here and there, from Henry of Huntingdon, Ailred of Rievaulx, and the Annals of Winchester.

On the other hand, the value of the Chronicle as an illustration

of the versification and language of the period is considerable. As a writer of English verse Robert comes first in order, being prior to both Robert of Brunne and Laurence Minot, and he has accordingly been styled the Ennius of English literature. His diction, again, affords many interesting points of comparison with that known as Old English on the one hand and the language of find the term "Saxons" used in opposition to Normans (Hearne, Chaucer and William Tyndale on the other. In his verses we first p. 363), although "English" is the term by which, throughout the Chronicle, the original population is more generally designated. Of the English tongue itself, however, he says (ib., p. 125) that of the most noteworthy peculiarities of his diction will be found "pe Saxones speche it was, and porw hem ycome yt ys." Many pointed out in Mr. Kingdon Oliphant's Old and Middle English, pp. 430-439.

Other compositions attributed to Robert of Gloucester are-a also in verse (MS. Tanner, 17), a Life of St Bridget (MS. C.C.C. Life of St Alban in verse (MS. Ashmole, 43), a Life of St Patrick, Camb., 145), and a Life of St Alphege (MS. Cott. Julius, D. ix.).

The only complete edition of the Chronicle is that edited by Thomas Hearne (Oxford, 1724), 2 vols. 8vo, partly from the Harleian MS. 201, and partly from the Cottonian MS. Calig. A. xi., and reprinted at London in 1810, 2 vols. 8vo. This, however, is extremely defective, Hearne's collation of the important MS. in the library of the college of Arms being very imperfect. For further information see Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue of MSS., fii. 181-189, i. 25, 68, iii. 623.

he

and Calabria, sixth of the twelve sons of Tancred de ROBERT GUISCARD (c. 1015-1085), duke of Apulia Hauteville, was born at Hauteville near Coutances in Normandy about the year 1015. At an early age followed into Apulia his three elder brothers William Brasde-fer, Drogo, and Humphrey, who had established a footing there as military adventurers; and in 1053 he took a the defeat and captivity of Pope Leo IX. On the death prominent part in the battle of Civitella, which resulted in of Humphrey in 1057 Robert, who already had earned the sobriquet of "Guiscard" ("Sagacious" or "Cunning"), succeeded to the chief command of the Norman troops, and, already designated by them duke of Apulia and Calabria, was confirmed in that title in 1059 by Pope Nicholas II., who at the same time named him gonfalonier of the church. For the next one-and-twenty years he Roger, in warlike operations against the Greeks and was continually engaged, along with his youngest brother Saracens in the south of the Italian peninsula and in Sicily, the principal events being the capture of Bari in 1070, that of Palermo in the following year, and that of Salerno in 1077. In 1081 he felt himself strong enough ostensibly on behalf of the deposed emperor Michael carry his arms abroad against Alexius Comnenus, Ducas, the father-in-law of his daughter. The defeat of Alexius under the walls of Durazzo in October 1081 was followed by the capture of that place in February 1082,

to

1 There were others known by the same name; see Hearne, Pref., p. 58.

ROBERTS, DAVID (1796-1864), landscape painter, was born at Stockbridge, Edinburgh, on 24th October 1796. At an early age he manifested a great love for art; but his father, a shoemaker, wished him to follow the same trade. He was, however, apprenticed for seven years to a painter and house-decorator; and during this time he employed his evenings in the earnest study of art. For the next few years his time was divided between work as a house-painter and as a scene-painter, and he even appeared occasionally on the boards as an actor in pantomimes. In 1820 he formed the acquaintance of Clarkson Stanfield, then painting at the Pantheon, Edinburgh, by whose advice and example he greatly profited and at whose suggestion he began his career as an exhibitor, sending three pictures in 1822 to the "Exhibition of Works by Living Artists," held in Edinburgh. In the same year he removed to London, where he worked for the Coburg Theatre, and was afterwards employed, along with Stanfield, at Drury Lane. In 1824 he exhibited at the British Institution a view of Dryburgh Abbey, and sent two works to the first exhibition of the Society of British Artists, which he had joined, and of which he was elected president in 1831. In the same autumn he visited Normandy, and the works which were the results of this excursion began to lay the foundation of the artist's reputation,—one of them, a view of Rouen Cathedral, being sold for eighty guineas. By his scenes for an opera entitled The Seraglio, executed two years later, he won much contemporary praise, and these, along with the scenery for a pantomime dealing with the naval victory of Navarino, and two panoramas executed jointly by him and Stanfield, were among his last work for the theatres. In 1829 he exhibited his imposing subject the Departure of the Israelites from Egypt, a commission from Lord Northwick, in which the style of the painter first becomes clearly apparent; and three years afterwards he travelled in Spain, and passed over to Tangiers, returning in the end of 1833 with a supply of effective sketches, which were speedily elaborated into attractive and popular paintings. His Interior of Seville Cathedral was exhibited in the British Institution in 1834, and sold for £300; and he executed a fine series of Spanish illustrations for the Landscape Annual of 1836, a publication to which he contributed for four years; while in 1837 a selection of his Picturesque Sketches in Spain was reproduced by litho graphy, many of the subjects being carefully retouched on the stone by the artist's own hand.

In 1838 Roberts made a long tour in the East, sailing up the Nile, visiting Luxor and Karnak, and afterwards making his way to the Holy Land. He thus accumulated a vast collection of sketches of a class of scenery which had hitherto been hardly touched by British artists, and which appealed to the public with all the charm of novelty. The next ten years of his life were mainly spent in elaborating these materials. Many Eastern subjects were painted, and an extensive series of drawings was lithographed by Louis Haghe in the superb work, Sketches in the Holy

The quality of Roberts's work is exceedingly equal and uniform during his whole carcer. The architecture, which is so prominent a feature in his paintings, is introduced with great picturesqueness and an easy command of its salient points, but with little care for the minutiae of detail. His art was conventional, essentially scenic and spectacular in character, showing effective composition and an unerring instinct for broad general effect, but destitute of that close adherence to nature, that delicacy and truth of tone and colour, which are becoming increasingly characteristic of the productions of the English school. Something of the scene-painter appears in all his works, and his certainty and speed of execution were undoubtedly founded upon his early practice for the stage. Ballantine, with etchings and pen-and-ink sketches by the artist, appeared in Edinburgh in 1866.

A Life of Roberts, compiled from his journals and other sources by James.

The

ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853), one of the most brilliant and influential preachers of modern times, was born in London, on 3d February 1816. first five years of his life were passed at Leith Fort, where his father, a captain in the Royal Artillery, was then resident. The impressions made upon the child in those early years were never effaced; the military spirit entered into his blood, and throughout life he was characterized by the qualities of the ideal soldier, courage, self-devotion, sense of duty, hatred of cruelty and meanness, chivalrous defence of the weak. In 1821 Captain Robertson retired to Beverley, where the boy was educated first at home, then at the grammar-school. At the age of fourteen he spent a year at Tours, from which he returned to Scotland and continued his education at the Edinburgh Academy and university. His father, who had remarked and fostered his singular nobility of character, his passion for purity and truthfulness, and his deepening religious feeling, now proposed that he should choose the church as his profession, but received the decisive answer, "Anything but that; I am not fit for it." At the age of eighteen he was accordingly articled to a solicitor in Bury St Edmunds, but the uncongenial and sedentary employment broke down his health in a year's time. It was then resolved to yield to his deep-rooted craving for a military career: his name was placed upon the list of the 3d Dragoons then serving in India, and for two years he devoted himself with ardour to the work of preparing for the army. But, by a singular conjuncture of circumstances and at the sacrifice of his own natural bent to his father's wish, he matriculated at Brazenose College, Oxford, just two weeks before his commission was put into his hands. Oxford he did not find wholly congenial to his intensely earnest spirit, but he read hard, and, as he afterwards said, "Plato, Aristotle, Butler, Thucydides, Sterne, Jonathan Edwards, passed like the iron atoms of the blood into my mental constitution." At the same time he made a careful study of the Bible, committing to memory the entire New Testament both in English and in Greek. The Tractarian movement had no attraction for him, although he admired some of its