Herzen. Turgen leff. Belinski. His novels of England. Among the most conspicuous of these writers was the celebrated Alexander Herzen, author of a striking romance, Kto Vinovat? ("Who is to Blame?"), which he published under the assumed name of Iskander. The public career of Herzen is well known. The freedom of his opinions soon embroiled him with the authorities. He was exiled to Perm, and, seizing the first opportunity which offered itself of passing the Russian frontiers, he spent the remainder of his life chiefly in France and England, and died at Geneva in 1869. His celebrated journal Kolokol ("The Bell") had a great circulation. A novelist of repute was Goncharoff, his two chief works being A Common-place Story and Oblomoff. Grigorovich has written The Fisherman and The Emigrants. Pisemski, another novelist of the realistic type, is the author of The Man of St Petersburg and Lieshi ("The Wood Demons"). Other novelists of celebrity are Saltîkoff, who writes under the name of Stchedrin, and whose Provincial Sketches published a few years ago made a great sensation and have been followed by Letters to My Aunt and other works; Dostoievski (d. 1881), author of Poor People, Letters from the House of the Dead (describing his impressions of Siberia, whither he was banished in consequence of a political offence), a powerful writer; and Ostrovski. We may also add Ryeshetnikoff, who takes his characters from the humbler classes; he died at the early age of thirty-nine. All these are disciples of the school of Dickens and Thackeray. Count A. Tolstoi, also celebrated as a dramatist, has written an historical novel entitled Prince Serebrianni. Count L. Tolstoi is author of a work of fiction describing the war of 1812, which has gained great celebrity in Russia, Voina i Mir ("War and Peace"). Novelists of the French school are Krestovski, Stebnitzki, and Boborîkin. During 1885 a new writer of merit, Kozolenko, appeared, who describes Siberian life. On September 4, 1883, died Ivan Turgenieff, aged sixty-four, the most eminent Russian novelist, and perhaps the only Russian man of letters universally known. His celebrity dates from his Memoirs of a Sportsman, in which he appears as the advocate of the Russian muzhik or peasant. He had witnessed in his youth many sad scenes at his own home, where his mother, a wealthy lady of the old school, treated her serfs with great cruelty. The poet devoted all his energies to procure their emancipation. This work was followed by a long array of tales, too well known to need recapitulation here, which have gained their author a European reputation, such as Dvorianskoe Gnezdo ("A Nest of Gentle People "), one of the most pathetic tales in any language, Nov ("Virgin Soil"), and others; nor can the minor tales of Turgenieff be forgotten, especially Mumu, a story based upon real life, for the dumb doorkeeper was a serf of his mother's, and experienced her illtreatment. His last two works were Poetry in Prose and Clara Milich. In Belinski the Russians produced their best critic. For thirteen years (1834-1847) he was the Aristarchus of Russian literature and exercised a healthy influence. In his latter days he addressed a withering epistle to Gogol on the newly-adopted reactionary views of the latter. Since the time of Karamzin the study of Russian torians. history has made great strides. He was followed by Polevoi. Nicholas Polevoi, who wrote what he called the History of the Russian People, but his work was not received with much favour and has now fallen into oblivion. Polevoi was a self-educated man, the son of a Siberian merchant; besides editing a well-known Russian journal The Telegraph, he was also the author of many plays, among others a translation of Hamlet. Since his time, however, the English dramatist has been produced in a more Ustria perfect dress by Kroneberg, Druzhinin, and others. In the year 1879 died Sergius Solovieff, whose History of Solovief Russia had reached its twenty-eighth volume, and fragments of the twenty-ninth were published after his death. This stupendous labour lacks something of the critical faculty, and perhaps may be described rather as a quarry of materials for future historians of Russia than an actual history. During 1885 the Russians have had to mourn the loss of Kostomaroff, the writer of many valuable Kostomonographs on the history of their country, of which those maroff. on Bogdan Khmelnitzki and the False Demetrius deserve special mention. From 1847 to 1854 Kostomaroff, who had become obnoxious to the Russian Government, wrote nothing, having been banished to Saratoff, and forbidden to teach or publish. But after this time his literary activity begins again, and, besides separate works, the leading Russian reviews, such as Old and New Russia, The Historical Messenger, and The Messenger of Europe, contain many contributions from his pen of the highest value. In 1885 also died Constantine Kavelin, the author of many valuable works on Russian law, and Kalatcheff, who published a classical edition of the old Russian codes. Ilovaiski and Gedeonoff have attempted to upset the general belief that the founders of the Russian empire were Scandinavians. Their opinions have been alluded to above (p. 87). A good history of Russia was published by Ustrialoff (1855), but his most celebrated work was his Tzarstvovanie Petra Velikago ("Reign of Peter the Great"); loff. in this many important documents first saw the light, and the circumstances of the death of the unfortunate Alexis were made clear. Russian writers of history have not generally occupied themselves with any other subject than that of their own country, but an exception may be found in the writings of Granovski, such as Abbé Suger (1849) and Four Historical Portraits (1850). So also Kudriavtzoff, who died in 1850, wrote on "The Fortunes of Italy, from the Fall of the Roman Empire of the West till its Reconstruction by Charlemagne." He also wrote on "The Roman Women as described by Tacitus." We may add Kareyeff, now professor at Warsaw, who has written on the condition of the French peasantry before the Revolu tion. Other writers on Russian history have been Pogodine, who compiled a History of Russia till the invasion of the Mongols, 1871, and especially Zabielin, who has written a History of Russian Life from the most Remote Times (1876), and the Private Lives of the Czarinas and Czars (1869 and 1872). Leshkoff has written a History of Russian Law to the 18th Century, and Tchitcherin a History of Provincial Institutions in Russia in the 17th Century (1856). To these must be added the work of Zagoskin, History of Law in the State of Muscovy (Kazan, 1877). Prof. Michael Kovalevski, of the university of Moscow, is now publishing an excellent work on Communal Land Tenure, in which he investigates the remains of this custom throughout the world. Of the valuable history of Russia by Prof. Bestuzheff-Riumin (1872) one volume only has appeared; the introductory chapters giving an account of the sources and authorities of Russian history are of the highest value. It is the most critical history of Russia which has yet appeared. In 1885 Dubrovin published an excellent history of the revolt of Pugatcheff. The valuable work by Messrs Pipin and Spasovich, History of Slavonic Literatures, is the most complete account of the subject, and has been made more generally accessible to Western students by the German translation of Pech. The History of. Slavonic Literature by Schafarik, published in 1826, has long been antiquated. Previous to this, a history of Russian literature by Paul Polevoi had appeared, which has gone through two editions. It is modelled upon Cham bors's Cyclopedia of English Literature. The account of Recent poets. Philo the Polish rebellion of 1863 by Berg, published in 1873, which gave many startling and picturesque episodes of this celebrated struggle, has now been withdrawn from circulation. It appeared originally in the pages of the Russian magazine, Starina. Since the death of Lermontoff the chief Russian poet who has appeared is Nicholas Nekrasoff, who died in 1877. He has left six volumes of poetry, which in many respects remind us of the writings of Crabbe; the poet dwells mainly upon the melancholy features of Russian life. He is of that realistic school in which Russian authors so much resemble English. Another writer of poetry deserving mention is Ogarieff, for a long time the companion in exile of Herzen in England; many of his compositions appeared in the Polar Stur of the latter, a medley of prose and verse, which contains some very important papers, including the interesting autobiographical sketches of Herzen, entitled Biloe i Dumi ("The Past and my Thoughts"). Maikoff at one time enjoyed great popularity as a poet; he is a kind of link between the present generation and that of Pushkin, of whose elegance of versification he is somewhat of an imitator. Another poet of a past generation was Prince Viazemski, whose works are now being collected. Graceful lyrics have also been written by Mei, Fet (whose name would apparently prove Dutch extraction, Veth), Stcherbina, and, going a little farther back, Yazîkoff, the friend of Pushkin, and Khomiakoff, celebrated for his Slavophile propensities. To these To these may be added Mdlle Zhadovskaia, who died a short time ago, Benediktoff, Podolinski, and Tiutcheff. It will be seen that in Russia (as in England) lyrical poetry is almost the only form now cultivated. It is becoming more and more coloured with imitations of the bîlinî and reproductions of the old Russian past, which is perhaps getting treated somewhat fantastically, as was the old Irish life in the Irish melodies of Moore. Occasionally Polonski contributes one of his exquisite lyrics to the Viestnik Yevropî ("European Messenger"). Excellent works on subjects connected with Slavonic logists. philology have been published by Vostokoff, who edited the Ostromir Codex, mentioned above (p. 103), and Sreznevski and Bodianski, who put forth an edition of the celebrated codex used at Rheims for the coronation of the French kings. Since their deaths their work has been carried on by Prof. Grote (Philological Investigations, also many critical editions of Russian classics). Budilovich, now a professor at Warsaw, Potebnya of Kharkoff, and Baudoin de Courtenay, who, among other services to philology, has described the Slavonic dialect spoken by the Resanians, a tribe living in Italy, in two villages of the Julian Alps. The songs (bilini) of the Russians have been collected by Zakrevski, Ribnikoff, Hilferding, Barsoff, and others, and their national tales by Sakharoff, Afanasieff, and Erlenvein. Kotliarevski, Tereshenko, and others have treated of their customs and superstitions, but it is to be regretted that no one as yet has made a complete study of the vexed question of Slavonic mythology. At the present time Stanislaus Mikutzki, professor at the university of Warsaw, is publishing his Materials for a Dictionary of the Roots of the Russian and all Slavonic Dialects, but, unfortunately, it represents a somewhat obsolete school of philology. The Early Russian Text Society continues its useful labours, and has edited many interesting monuments of the older Slavonic literature. Quite recently two valuable codices have been printed in Russia, Zographus and Marianus, interesting versions of the Gospels in Palæoslavonic. They were edited by the learned Croat Jagić, who now occupies the chair of Srezuevski in St Petersburg. An excellent Tolkovi Slovar Velikorusskayo Yazika ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Great Russian | Language "), by Dahl, has gone into a second edition. Alexander Hilferding published some valuable works on ethnology and philology, among others on the Polabes, an extinct Slavonic tribe who once dwelt on the banks of the Elbe. Although they have produced some good Slavonic scholars, the Russians have not exhibited many works in the field of classical or other branches of philology. Exception, however, must be made in favour of the studies of Tchubinoff in Georgian, Minayeff in the Indian, and Tzvetayeff in the old languages of Italy. In moral and mental philosophy the Russians have produced but few authors. We meet with some good mathematicians, Ostrogradski among others, and in natural science the publications of the Society for Natural History at Moscow have attracted considerable attention. Since the Boris Godunoff of Pushkin, which was the Recent first attempt in Russia to produce a play on the Shake- drama. spearian model, many others have appeared in the same style. A fine trilogy was composed by. Count A. Tolstoi on the three subjects, The Death of Ivan the Terrible (1866), The Czar Feodor (1868), and The Czar Boris (1869). Other plays of merit have been written by Ostrovski and Potiekhin. Many excellent literary journals and magazines make Serials. their appearance in the country; among these may especially be mentioned the time-honoured Viestnik Yevropî ("Messenger of Europe"), which contains some of the most brilliant writing produced in the Russian empire. The Istoricheski Viestnik ("Historical Messenger") is full of curious matter, and does not confine itself merely to Russian subjects. It is edited by M. Shubinski, the author of some pleasant sketches on the manners of Russia in the old time. On the contrary Starina (the "Antiquary," if we may so freely translate the original name) is entirely Russian, and is a valuable repertory of documents concerning the history of the country, and memoirs, especially relating to the latter part of the 17th century. The highly interesting magazine Drevnaia i Novaia Rossia did not protract its existence beyond six years, having come to an end in 1881. Many of the best Russian writers contributed to it; it contains much valuable material for the student of history. The Russkii Arkhiv is edited by M. Bartenieff, and has long been celebrated; some of the most important notes on Russian history of the 18th and 19th century have appeared in this journal. During the last few years extensive excava tions have been made in many parts of Russia, and much has been done to throw light upon the prehistoric period of the country. A large "kurgan," called Cherna Mogila, or the Black Grave, was opened by Samokvasoff in the government of Tchernigoff and described in the pages of Old and New Russia. Explorations have been carried on on the site of Bolgari, the ancient capital of the Ugrian Bolgars on the Volga. One of the most active workers in this field was the late Count Uvaroff (d. 1884), who published a valuable monograph on the Stone Age in Russia. and many other important works. A few words must be said on the literature of the Russian The Littlo dialects, the Little and White Russian. The Little Russian is Russian rich in skazki (tales) and songs. Peculiar to them is the duma, dialect,. a narrative poem which corresponds in many particulars with the or MaloRussian bilina. Since the cominencement of the present century, russian./ when curiosity was first aroused on the subject of national poetry, the Little Russian dumt have been repeatedly edited, as by Maksimovich Metlinski and others. An elaborate edition (far surpassing the earlier ones) was commenced by Dragomanoff and Antonovich, but as yet only one volume and a portion of a second second have inado their appearance. Just as the bilinî of the Great Russians, so also these duuni of the Little Russians admit of classification, and they have been divided by their latest editors as follows: (1) the sougs of the druzhina, treating of the early princes and their followers; (2) the Cossack period (Kozachestvo) in which the Cossacks are found in continual warfare with the Shev Polish pans and the attempts of the Jesuits to introduce the Roman Catholic religion; (3) the period of the Haidamaks, who formed the nucleus of the national party, and prolonged the struggle. The gradual break up of the military republic of these sturdy freebooters has already been described. No one The foundation of the Little Russian literature (written, as opposed to the oral) was laid by Ivan Kotliarevski (1769–1838), whose travesty of part of the Eneid enjoys great popularity among some of his countrymen. Others, however, object to it as tending to bring the language or dialect into ridicule. A truly national poet appeared in Taras Shevchenko, born at the village of Kirilovka shenko. in the government of Kieff, in the condition of a serf. The strange adventures of his early life he has told us in his autobiography. He did not get his freedom till some time after he had reached manhood, when he was purchased from his master by the generous efforts of the poet Zhukovski and others. Besides poetry, ho occupied himself with painting with considerable success. Ho unfortunately became obnoxious to the Government, and was punished with exile to Siberia from 1847 to 1857. He did not long survive his return, dying in 1861, aged forty-six. has described with greater vigour than Shevchenko the old days of the Ukraine. In his youth he listened to the village traditions handed down by the priests, and he has faithfully reproduced them. The old times of Nalivaiko, Doroshenko, and others live over again. Like Gogol he is too fond of describing scenes of bloodshed. In the powerful poem entitled Haidamak we have a graphic picture of the horrors enacted by Gonta and his followers at Uman. The sketches are almost too realistic. Like Burns with the old Scottish songs, so Shevchenko has reproduced admirably the spirit of the lays of the Ukraine. All those familiar ⚫ with his works will remember the charming little lyrics with which they are interspersed. The funeral of the poet was a vast public procession; a great cairn, surmounted with a cross, was raised over his remains, where he lies buried near Kanioff on the banks of the Dnieper. His grave has been styled the "Mecca of the South Russian Revolutionists." He is the great national poet of the Southern Russians. A complete edition of his works, with interesting biographical notices-one contributed by the novelist Turgenieff-appeared at Prague in 1876. Besides the national songs, excellent collections of the South Russian folk-tales have appeared, edited by Dragomanoff, Rudchenko, and others. Many of these are still recited by the "tchumaki" or wandering pedlars. A valuable work is the Zapiski o Yuzhnoi Rossii ("Papers on Southern Russia"), published at St Petersburg in 1857 by Panteleimon Kulish. After he got into trouble (with Kostomaroff and Shevchenko) for his political views, the late works of this author show him to have undergone a complete change. Other writers using the Little Russian language are Marko-Vovchok (that is, Madame Eugenia Markovich), and Yuri Fedkovich, who employs a dialect of Bukovina. Fedkovich, like Shevchenko, sprang from a peasant family, and served as a soldier in the Austrian army, against the French during the Italian campaign. Naturally we find his poems filled with descriptions of life in the camp. Like the Croat Preradović, he began writing poetry in the German language, till he was turned into more natural paths by some patriotic friends. A collection of songs of Bukovina was published at Kieff in 1875 by Lonachevski. At the present time Eugene Zelechowski continues his valuable Dictionary of Little Russian, of which about one half has appeared. This promises to be a very useful book, for up to the present time students have been obliged to rest satisfied with the scanty publications of Levchenko, Piskunoff, and Verchratzki. There is a good grammar by Osadtza, a pupil of Miklosich. In the White Russian dialect are to be found only a few songs, White with the exception of portions of the Scriptures and some legal Russian documents. A valuable dictionary was published a short time ago dialect. by Nosovich, but this is one of the most neglected of the Russian dialects, as the part in which it is spoken is one of the dreariest of the empire. Collections of White Russian songs have been published by Shein and others. For details regarding this and the other Russian dialects see SLAVS. INDEX. Golitzin, 97. Great Russians, 79. Ice, battle of the, 90. Ivan III., 91. Ivan IV. (the Terrible), Navarino, battle of, 101. 92. Jews, 79. Kantemir, 105. Karamzin, 106. Navy, 72. Nekrasoff, 109. Nestor, 103. Nikitin (traveller), 103. Karaites, 79. Nicholas, 101. Nihilism, 102. Khemnitzer, 106. Nikitin (poet), 107. Kheraskoff, 106. Kniazlinin, 106. Knout, 91. Koltzoff, 107. Nikon, 82, 105. Nonconformists, 81. Novels, 107. Kostomaroff, 108. Novgorod republic, 89, 91. Russian race, 78, 79. Persia, war with. 101. Peter Í. (the Great), 97. Peter II., 98, Peter III., 99. (W. P. M.) Shuiskis, 92, 95. Sumarokoff, 106. Suzdal principality, 89. St Petersburg founded, 97. Saltikoff, 99. Schools, 71. Scientific societies, 71. RUSTCHUK (RUSάUK), a city of Bulgaria, Turkey in Europe, on the south bank of the Danube, opposite Giurgevo, at the point where the river receives the waters of the Lom, a fine stream from the northern slopes of the Balkans. Since 1867 it has been connected by rail (139 miles) with Varna. The town was nearly destroyed by the Russian bombardment from Giurgeva in 1877, and the military works have since been dismantled in terms of the treaty of Berlin. Its position on the river frontier of Turkey long made it a place of strategic importance. In 1871 the population was about 23,000 (10,800 Turks, 7700 Bulgarians, 1000 Jews, 800 Armenians, 500 Gipsics, In the time of the Romans Rustchuk was one of the fortified points along the line of the Danube. In the Tabula Peutingeriana the Notitia as Seragintaprista, and in Ptolemy as Priste Polis. appears as Prisca, in the Antonine Itinerary as Serantaprista, in Destroyed by the barbarian invasion, the town recovered its importance only in comparatively modern times. In 1810 it was captured by the Russians, and on his departure next Kutusoff year destroyed the fortifications. In 1828-29 and again in 1853-54 it played a part in the Russo-Turkish War, and in 1877, as already mentioned, it was nearly destroyed. RUTH, BOOK OF. The story of Ruth, the Moabitess, great-grandmother of David, one of the Old Testament Hagiographa, is usually reckoned as the second of the five Megilloth or Festal Rolls. This position corresponds to the Jewish practice of reading the book at the Feast of Pentecost; Spanish MSS., however, place Ruth at the head of the Megilloth (see CANTICLES); and the Talmud, in a well-known passage of Baba Bathra, gives it the first place among all the Hagiographa. On the other hand the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the English version make Ruth follow Judges. It has sometimes been held that this was its original place in the Hebrew Bible also, or rather that Ruth was originally reckoned as an appendix to Judges, since it is only by doing this, and also by reckoning Lamentations to Jeremiah, that all the books of the Hebrew canon can be reduced to twenty-two, the number assigned by Josephus and other ancient authorities. But it has been shown in the article LAMENTATIONS (q.v.) that the argument for the superior antiquity of this way of reckoning breaks down on closer examination, and, while it was very natural that a later rearrangement shonld transfer Ruth from the Hagiographa to the historical books, and place it between Judges and Samuel, no motive can be suggested for the opposite change. That the book of Ruth did not originally form part of the series of Prophetæ priores (Judges-Kings) is further probable from the fact that it is quite untouched by the process of "prophetic" or "Deuteronomistic" editing, which gave that series its present shape at a time soon after the fall of the kingdom of Judah; the narrative has no affinity with the point of view which looks on the whole history of Israel as a series of examples of divine justice and mercy in the successive rebellions and repentances of the people of God.1 But if the book had been know at the time when the history from Judges to Kings wa dited, it could hardly have been excluded from the collection; the ancestry of David was of greater interest than that of Saul, which is given in 1 Sam. ix. 1, whereas the old history names no ancestor of David beyond his father Jesse. In truth the book of Ruth does not offer itself as a document written soon after the period to which it refers; it presents itself as dealing with times far back (Ruth i. 1), and takes obvious delight in depicting details of antique life and obsolete usages; it views the rude and stormy period before the institution of the kingship through the softening atmosphere of time, which imparts to the scene a gentle sweetness very different from the harsher colours of the old narratives of the book of Judges. In the language, too, there is a good deal that makes for and nothing that makes against a date subsequent to the captivity, and the very designation of a period of Hebrew history as "the days of the judges" is based on the Deuteronomistic additions to the book of Judges (ii. 16 sq.) and does not occur till the period of the exile. An inferior limit for the date of the book cannot be assigned with precision. It has been argued that, as the author seems to take no offence at the marriage of Israelites with Moabite women, he must have lived before the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra ix.; Neh. xiii.); but the same argument would prove that the book of Esther was written before Ezra, and indeed "a disposition to derive prominent Jewish families from proselytes prevailed to a much later date," and finds expression in the Talmud (see Wellhausen-Bleek, p. 205). The language of Ruth, however, though post-classical, does not seem to place it among the very latest Old Testament books, and the manner in which the story is told is as remote from the legal pragmatism of Chronicles as from the prophetic pragmatism of the editor of the older histories. The tone of simple piety and graciousness 1 The religious pragmatism lacking in the original is in part supplied by the Targum (i. 5, 6). which runs through the narrative, unencumbered by the pedantry of Jewish legality, seems to indicate that the book was written before all the living impulses of Jewish literature were choked by the growing influence of the doctors of the law. In this respect it holds in Hebrew prose writing a position analogous to that of the older Chokma in Hebrew poetry. But the triumph of the scribes in literature as well as in law was not accomplished till long after the time of Ezra. Wellhausen in Bleek, 4th edition, p. 204 sq., finds the clearest indication of the date of Ruth in the appended genealogy, Ruth iv. 18-22; compare his remarks in Prol. Gesch. Israels, p. 227 (Eng. tr., pp. 217 sq.). Salma (Salmon), father of Boaz, is a tribe foreign to old Judah, which was not "father" of Bethlehem till after the exile, and the names of Salma's ancestors are also open to criticism. But this genealogy is also found in Chronicles, and is quite in the manner of other genealogies in the same book. That it was borrowed from Chronicles and added to Ruth by a later hand seems certain, for the author of Ruth clearly recognizes that Obed was legally the son of Mahlon, not of Boaz (iv. 5, 10), so that from his standpoint the appended genealogy is all wrong. The design of the book of Ruth has been much discussed and often in too narrow a spirit; for the author is an artist who takes manifest delight in the touching and graceful details of his picture, and is not simply guided by a design to impart historical information about David's ancestors, or enforce some particular lesson. Now the interest of the story, as a work of art, culminates in the marriage of Boaz and Ruth, not in the fact that their son was David's ancestor, which, if the book originally ended with iv. 17, is only mentioned in a cursory way at the close of the story. Had the author's main design been to illustrate the history of the house of David, as many critics think, or to make the point that the noblest stock in Israel was sprung from an alien mother (Wellhausen), this design would certainly have been brought into more prominence. The marriage acquires an additional interest when we know that Ruth was David's great-grandmother, but the main interest is independent of that, and lies in the happy issue of Ruth and Naomi from their troubles through the loyal performance of the kinsman's part by Boaz. Doubtless the writer meant his story to be an example to his own age, as well as an interesting sketch of the past; but this is effected simply by describing the exemplary conduct of Naomi, Ruth, Boaz, and even Boaz's harvesters. All these act as simple, kindly, God-fearing people ought to act in Israel. There is one antique custom which the writer follows with peculiar interest and describes with archæological detail as a thing which had evidently gone out of use in his own day. By old Hebrew law, as by the old law of Arabia, a wife who had been brought into her husband's house by contract and payment of a price to her father was not set free by the death of her husband to marry again at will. The right to her hand lay with tho nearest heir of the dead. Originally we must suppose, among the Hebrews as among the Arabs, this law was all to the disadvantage of the widow, whose hand was simply part of the dead man's estate; but, while this remained so in Arabia to the time of Mohamined, among the Hebrews the law early took quite an opposite turn; the widow of a man who died childless was held kinsman, and this son was regarded as the son of the dead and to have a right to have a son begotten on her by the next succeeded to his inheritance so that his name might not be cut off from Israel. The duty of raising up a son to the dead lay upon his brother, and in Deut. xxv. 5 is restricted to the caso when brothers live together. In old times, as appears from Gen. xxxviii., this was not so, and the law as put in the book of Ruth appears to be that the nearest kinsman of the dead in general had a right to "redeem for himself" the dead man's estate, but at the same time was bound to marry the widow. The son of this marriage was reckoned as the dead man's son and succeeded to his property, so that the "redeemer" had only a temporary usufruct in it. Naomi was too old to be married in this way, but she had certain rights over her husband's estate which the next kinsman had to buy up before he could enter on the property. And this he was willing to do, but he was not willing also to marry Ruth and beget on her a son who would take the name and estate of the dead and leave him out of pocket. He therefore withdraws and Boaz comes in in his place. That this is the sense of the transaction is clear; there is, however, a little obscurity in iv. 5, where one letter seems to have fallen out and we must read on 1, and translate "What day thou buyest the field from Naomi thou must also buy Ruth," &c. Comp. vv. 9, 10. Among older commentaries special mention may be made of J. B. Carpzov, Collegium rabbinico-biblicum in libellum Ruth, Leipsic, 1703. In recent times Ruth has usually been taken up by commentators along with JUDGES (q.v.). (W. R. S.) Restoration in 1660. His Lex Rex was ordered to be burned at the cross of Edinburgh, and also at the gate of the college. He was deprived of all his offices, and on a charge of high treason was cited to appear before the ensuing parliament. His health, however, now utterly broke down, and knowing that he had not long to live he drew up, on 26th February 1661, a Testimony, which was posthumously published. He died on the 20th of the following March. The fame of Rutherfurd now rests principally upon his remark able Letters, on which Wodrow thus comments:-" He scems to have outdone even himself as well as everybody else in his admir RUTHENIANS. See SLAVS. For Ruthenian (Little able and every way singular letters, which, though jested upon by Russian) literature, see RUSSIA. RUTHENIUM. See PLATINUM. RUTHERFURD, or RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL (16001661), Scottish divine, was born about 1600 at the village of Nisbet in Roxburghshire. He is supposed to have received his early education at Jedburgh, and he entered the university of Edinburgh in 1617. He graduated M.A. in 1621, and two years afterwards was elected professor of humanity. On account of some alleged indiscretion or irregularity connected with his marriage in 1625, he resigned his professorship in that year, but, after studying theology, he was in 1627 appointed minister of Anwoth, Kirkcudbrightshire, where he displayed remarkable diligence and zeal, alike as preacher, pastor, and student, and soon took a leading place among the clergy of Galloway. In 1636 his first book, entitled Exercitationes de Gratia an elaborate treatise against Arminianism-appeared at Amsterdam, and attracted some attention both in Great Britain and on the Continent. Combined with his strict and non-conforming presbyterianism, the severe Calvinism set forth in this work led to a prosecution by the new bishop of the diocese, Sydserff, in the High Commission Court, first at Wigtown and afterwards at Edinburgh, with the result that Rutherfurd was deposed from his pastoral office, and sentenced to confinement in Aberdeen during the king's pleasure. His banishment lasted from September 1636 to February 1638, and was chiefly remarkable for the epistolary activity he displayed, the greater number of his published Letters belonging to this period of his life. He was present at the signing of the Covenant in Edinburgh in 1638, and afterwards at the meeting of the Glasgow Assembly the same year, which restored him to his parish. In 1639 he was appointed professor of divinity in St Mary's College, St Andrews, and shortly after wards became colleague to Robert Blair in the church of St Andrews. He was sent up to London in 1643 as one of the eight commissioners from Scotland to the Westminster Assembly. Arriving along with Baillie in November, and remaining at his post over three years, he did great service to the cause of his party. In 1642 he had published his Peaceable and Temperate Plea for Paul's Preshyterie in Scotland, and the sequel to it in 1644 on The Due Right of Presbyteries provoked Milton's contemptuous reference to mere A. S. and Rutherfurd" in his sonnet On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament. In 1644 also appeared Rutherfurd's Lex Rex, a Dispute for the Just Prerogative of King and People, which gives him a recognized place among the early writers on constitutional law; it was followed by The Divine Right of Church Government (1646), and Free Disputation against Pretended Liberty of Conscience (1649). Among his other works are the Tryal and Triumph of Faith (1645), Christ Dying and Drawing Sinners to Himself (1647), and Survey of the Spiritual Antichrist (1648). In 1647 he returned to St Andrews to become principal of the New College there, and in 1648 and 1651 he declined successive invitations to theological chairs at Harderwijk and Utrecht. His last days were assailed by the persecution which followed the profane wits because of some familiar expressions, yet will be owned of all who have any relish of picty to contain such sublime flights of devotion and to be fraughted with such massy thoughts as loudly speak a soul united to Jesus Christ in the closest embraces, and must needs at once ravish and edify every serious reader." In addition to the other works already mentioned, Rutherfurd published in 1651 a treatise De Divina Providentia, against Molinism, Socinianism, and Arminianism, of which Richard Baxter, not without justice, remarked that "as the Letters were the best piece so this was the worst he had ever read." The Letters, to the number of 215, were first published anonymously by M'Ward, an amanuensis, at Rotterdam, in 1664. They have been frequently reprinted, the best edition (365 letters) being that by Rev. A. A. Bonar, 1848, with a sketch of his life. See also a short Life by Rev. Dr Andrew Thomson, 1884. RUTHERGLEN, an ancient royal burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland, is situated near the left bank of the Clyde, 2 miles south-east of Glasgow. It consists chiefly of one long wide irregular street, with narrow streets, wynds, and alleys branching from it at intervals. The parish church is situated near the centre of the town, a little distance from the tower of the old church where the treaty was made in 1297 with Edward I., by which Sir John Monteith agreed with the English to betray the Scottish hero Wallace. The most important public building is the townhall, a handsome structure with a large square tower. In the vicinity there are extensive collieries and ironworks, and the town possesses chemical works, a paper mill, a pottery, and a shipbuilding yard. The corporation consists of a provost, two bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, and fifteen councillors. The population of the royal burgh in 1871 was 9239, and in 1881 it was 11,473. Rutherglen was erected into a royal burgh by King David in 1126. At this time it included a portion of Glasgow, but in 1226 the boundaries were rectified so as to exclude the whole of that city. In early times it had a castle, which was taken by Bruce battle of Langside it was burnt by order of the regent Murray. from the English in 1313. It was kept in good repair till after the After this the town for a time gradually decayed, the trade being absorbed by Glasgow. Rutherglen is included in the Kilmarnock district of parliamentary burghs. RUTILIUS CLAUDIUS NAMATIANUS is known to us as the author of a Latin poem in elegiac metre, describing a coast voyage from Rome to Gaul in 416 A.D. The literary excellence of the work and the flashes of light which it throws across a momentous but dark epoch of history combine to give it exceptional importance among the relics of late Roman literature. The poem was in two books; the exordium of the first and the greater part of the second have been lost. What remains consists of about 700 lines. The poet's voyage took place in the late autumn of 416 (i. 135 sq.), and the verses as we have them were evidently written at or very near the time. The author is a native of southern Gaul, and belonged, like Sidonius, to one of the great governing families of the Gaulish provinces. His father, whom he calls Lachanius, had held high offices in Italy and at the imperial court, had been governor of Etruria and Umbria (consularis Tusciae) probably in 389, when a Claudius is named in the Theodosian Code (2, 4, 5) as having held the office, then imperial treasurer (comes sacrarum largitionum), imperial recorder (quaestor), and governor of the capital itself (praefectus |